Feminism in Germany, The Emergence of the Second Wave

The emergence of the Second Wave was a key component in the development of feminism in Germany[1]. The Second Wave emerged throughout the first half of the 20th century and was heavily influenced by the policies of the Third Reich and its attitudes towards gender roles, and the circumstances of the post-Second World War period.

First Wave

Historically, social systems throughout the world were organized paternalistically[2]. Respective patriarchal structures can be found in all areas of society: in governmental power structures, in the economies of developing countries[3], in the sciences, in medicine, etc. The first changes to this system appeared as the beginning of a self-conscious, feminist movement[4].

The first emergence of women's movements and the discussion of women's rights was contingent on the French Revolution's goals to achieve equality among all people[5][6]. On 14 September 1791, the French feminist Olympe de Gouges demanded equal rights for men and women[7]. During this period, the women's movement was influenced predominantly by social class issues[8]. Louise Otto-Peters is believed to be the founder of the first middle class women's movement that actively pursued participation of women in education and political matters. Her demand was for women to participate in political matters not as a right but rather a duty.[9]

Beginning in the middle of the 19th century, women's movements began to form in various countries around the world, such as in France, England, the United States, and Australia. Hubertine Auclert, editor of the newspaper La Citoyenne (French for 'Female Citizen') developed in 1882 the term "Féminisme" (French for 'Feminism' from Latin 'Femina', woman and the Greek '-ism', a derivative linguistic term frequently used for creation of distinctive terms) as a political guiding principle. Auclert had been protesting the French government's decision to deny women the right to vote on several occasions, leading Auclert to run as an illegal candidate for the French government and refusing to pay taxes any longer, and proclaiming: "I have no rights, therefore, I have no taxes; I do not vote, I do not pay."[10]

Auclert's defining term was introduced in 1896 at an international women's convention in Berlin ('Internationaler Kongress für Frauenwerke und Frauenbestrebungen') as a synonym for 'Frauenbewegung', meaning 'women's movement'[11].

The Third Reich and its repercussions for women

National Socialism emerged with drastic changes to form a different German society, structured around Nazi values and conceptions. In 1933, Baldur von Schirach[12] was appointed "Reichsjugendführer" ("Leader of the Reich's Youth") by Adolf Hitler. Before 1933, various youth organizations, like the Boy Scouts[13], existed within German christian or political associations. Von Schirach formed a uniformed youth movement out of those groups, called the Hitler Youth, with membership becoming mandatory in 1936[14].

The Hitler Youth however, was structured by gender[15]. There were two categories, the so called 'Hitlerjugend', 'Hitler Boys' who had to associate themselves with militaristic ideas in order to grow up to become effective soldiers[16], and the 'BDM, Bund Deutscher Mädchen'[15], 'Association of German Girls', who were prepared to fit into their designated role of the "obedient housewife and mother"[17].

In 1933, the Nazis banned early female professors from teaching at Universities[18]. National Socialist legislation from 1933 to 1945 restricted women's rights to attend University and led to a substantial rupture of academic employment as well as occupational career development for women[19]. The discriminating legislature of the Nazis was also evident in the 'Judiciary Training Regulations' of 22 July 1934[20]. The reasoning, female lawyers constitute, "einen Einbruch in den altgeheiligten Grundsatz der Männlichkeit des Staates“. In English: "An invasion of the holy and established principles of the manliness of the nation”[21]. The Nazis also systematically destroyed women's associations, expelling Anita Augspurg and Lida Gustava Heymann, pioneers of the first women's movement and adversaries of the Nazi regime, into exile in Switzerland 1933[22].

Towards the end of World War II, structures of German society had changed. Due to the damage socially, in terms of the high mortality rates of men and the physical damage to the cities, there was an increased need for women to work in factories to aid in compensating for the loss suffered[19].As a result, the economic value of women changed yet not their social status[23]. Barbara Brennan described how this was perceived, "The German women who survived the Second World War are often characterized by the familiar images of long lines of women digging the country out from underneath the rubble."[24]

After World War II

After the collapse of the Third Reich, women were gradually relieved of their new duties by returning prisoners of war and had to content themselves with these conditions.[25] The conditions of women, who served the country during the war as volunteers or conscripts, had to face repercussions of their actions, which affected their future career and personal life.[26]

Feminism was virtually non-existent from 1945 to 1966. An important exception is a phrase in the Human Rights Section of newly written German "Grundgesetz", (the German Constitution) which states: "Men and Women have Equal Rights.”[27] This is an advancement of the 'Weimarer Reichsverfassung', the constitution of the Weimar Republic. In Article 109 it reads: "Alle Deutschen sind vor dem Gesetze gleich,”[28] "All Germans are equal under the law," and "Männer und Frauen haben grundsätzlich dieselben staatsbürgerlichen Rechte und Pflichten,"[29] which translates to "Men and Women have basically the same rights and obligations."

The German Grundgesetz

The German Grundgesetz of 1949 was discussed and written by a group of 65 politicians, free of Nazi ideology. Amongst those 65 were however, only four women, Frieda Nadig, Elisabeth Selbert, Helene Weber and Helene Wessel,[30] who were the pioneers of the German women's movement after World War II.

Elisabeth Selbert

Elisabeth Selbert was a politician and a lawyer, who had initially very limited primary and secondary education due to lack of funds.[31] After finding a job in a telegraphic office, she managed to graduate from college and proceeded to attend law school in Goettingen and Marburg.[31] She was one of five female law students among the remaining 300 and passed her exams with honours just before the laws with regard to female admittance to universities took effect in December 1934.[32] Due to her experiences, Elisabeth Selbert became the main influencer in regards to equality of men and women.[33]

Frieda Nadig

Frieda Nadig was a German politician, born in Herford on 11 December 1897. Like her father, who was a German politician for the 'Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands' - 'Social Democratic Party of Germany' (SPD) until 1931,[34] she started her political career in 1916 and was elected as representative of the provincial council in Westfalen. In 1933, the Provincial Diet was abolished by means of political adjustments by the Third Reich and Nadig lost her status as a representative.[34] Nadig refused to commit herself politically until 1947, when she became an elected SPD member of the newly created German state parliament of Nordrhein-Westfalen.[34] Next, to her function as a state representative, she was chosen to act as a member of the parliament council (Parlamentarischer Rat), and write the German Grundgesetz. Elisabeth Selbert and the SPD succeeded in implementing gender equality in the German constitution. However, her demands for equality of wages and efforts to treat illegitimate and conjugal children equally were not successful.[35]

Helene Weber

Helene Weber

Unencumbered from not participating as a National Socialist[36] and by providing expertise as a former member of the national council,[36] Helene Weber became part of the parliament council, at the behest of Konrad Adenauer, who was elected the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. While creating the German Grundgesetz, the CDU (Christian Democratic Union of Germany) politician invested in addressing the meaning and creating phrasings to emphasise the importance of human life and dignity.[36] After hesitance in regards to women's rights, she eventually proposed: “Männer und Frauen stehen bei Wahl und Ausübung des Berufes gleich, verrichten sie gleiche Arbeit, so haben sie Anspruch auf gleiche Entlohnung.“[37] – "Men and Women are equal to their choice of work and execution of their work. If they accomplish the same, they deserve the right to equal wages."

Gleichberechtigungsgesetz – Equal Rights Law

In 1957, the "Gleichberechtigungsgesetz", "Equal Rights Law" came into effect.[38] German legislation is not comparable with, for instance, the British or American legal systems, which are based on case law. In Germany, a Civil Code ("BGB") exists with 2385 Paragraphs,[39] or a Criminal Code ("StGB") with 358 Paragraphs.[40] Both Codes are directly applicable to solve legal questions.

Influences of the BGB go back to the "Code Napoleon" and it was put into practice on 1 January 1900,[41] and many changes were needed to bring it up to date with contemporary standards and values. In 1949, when the German constitution was enacted, equal rights had not yet been a topic, particularly missing in the Civil or the Criminal Code. The "Gleichberechtigungsgesetz", the "Equal Rights Act" was supposed to mend this issue.

The last changes regarding gender inequality were made and put into practice on 25 April 2006, by means of the Gleichberechtigungsgesetz.

Existing problems regarding gender inequality and the resulting need for change

From 1949 until 1965, Germany had a conservative government with a Roman Catholic chancellor, Dr. Konrad Adenauer, who was regarded as hesitant to matters of change.[42]

The general agreement was to protect marriage and family with respect to traditional role models; the legal standing of a married woman did not correspond with that of a married man. The husband’s role as 'master of the house' ('Haushaltsvorstand'), was defined and specified legally. It was up to the husband to make important decisions[43] and his consent was required for a woman to open a bank account.[43] Until 1977, it was the law that a married woman needed her husband's agreement in order to obtain an employment contract, and if such consent was given, it was also up to the husband to decide what purpose the wife's earnings would be used for.[43]

Violation, abuse, and rape in a marriage was considered conjugal duty and not punishable, contrary to abortions, which were punishable in all cases.[44]

Girls with a rural or a working-class background were heavily underrepresented in secondary schools or further education. War veterans had been given preference to study at the few functioning universities in the post-war country and had taken up most educational spots. Over 50 percent of women graduating from gymnasiums, Germany's academic secondary schools, were forced to relinquish further academic education.[45] Universities had very few female professors, and only a third of all women were even employed. Gender-specific, stereotypically female jobs, called low-wage or mini jobs were created, in order to encourage women to pursue small jobs next to their roles as housewives.[46]

The Second Wave

In 1960s, Germany several autonomous feminist groups were founded without initially forming a broader movement. This period became known as the Emergence of the second wave.[47] During this time, university students began to question the mindsets of their educators, as many professors were considered ex-Nazi collaborators.[48]

"After the bitter experience of the Nazi regime and Second World War, Germans, both in East and West turned away from militarism. Although West Germany decided in the early 1950s – despite strong protests in Parliament and among the public – to follow East Germany in rebuilding an army and (unlike East Germany) join NATO, West German soldiers took no part in international combat missions until German reunification in 1990."[49]

— Mark Davis

This political environment created conditions for the formation of a new women's movement – the second wave. On 13 September 1968, at a conference of the "Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund"(“SDS"), the "Socialist German Student Association,"[50] a female activist of the SDS blamed male SDS members in her speech for not pushing social criticism far enough because they ignored female discrimination.[51] The SDS was a mirror image of a masculine aligned society. When the comrades were not prepared to discuss this contribution but returned to the initial agenda, Sigrid Rüger, a prominent member of the West Berlin SDS organisation and a member of the "Aktionsrat zur Befreiung der Frauen", "Mission board for the Liberation of Women", tossed a tomato towards the SDS board and hit one of its members.[51][52] On the same day, female members of the various [SDS] regional councils founded "Weiberräte[53]" which translates to something like "hag-councils" and formed their own Women's Movement with new organisational structures like autonomous women's centres.

These new structures allowed women to protest against institutionalised disparities such as "division of labour, birth control, laws, sexuality in politics and abortion".[51][53][54]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Hilden, Patricia (1982). Dubois, Ellen; Fletcher, Sheila; Harrison, Brian; Kaplan, Marion; McMillan, James; Prochaska, F. K.; Rupp, Leila; Soldon, Norbert; Tentler, Leslie Woodcock, eds. "Women's History: The Second Wave". The Historical Journal. 25 (2): 501–512.
  2. ↑ Hartsock, Nancy C. M. (1983). Discovering Reality. Synthese Library. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 283–310. doi:10.1007/0-306-48017-4_15. ISBN 9789027714961.
  3. ↑ Sultana, PhD, Abeda. "Patriarchy and Women's Subordination: A Theoretical Analysis" (PDF). semanticscholar.org.
  4. ↑ "Four Waves of Feminism | Pacific University". www.pacificu.edu. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  5. ↑ Hanke, Eigil. "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity in the French Revolution". dandebat.dk. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  6. ↑ "Women's Rights and the French Revolution | French and Haitian Revolutions". blog.uwgb.edu. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  7. ↑ "Feministin Olympe de Gouges – "Mann, bist du fähig gerecht zu sein?"". Deutschlandfunk Kultur (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  8. ↑ Ferguson, Ann; Hennessy, Rosemary; Nagel, Mechthild (2018). Zalta, Edward N., ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  9. ↑ unknown author. "Geschichte der Frauenbewegung im bundesdeutschen Kontext". Bielefeld University. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
  10. ↑ Gale Research Inc. "Auclert, Hubertine (1848–1914). Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
  11. ↑ "Auclert, Hubertine – Dictionary definition of Auclert, Hubertine | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  12. ↑ Schirach, An Essay by Ferdinand von (23 September 2011). "A Third Reich Past: Why I Cannot Answer Questions about My Grandfather". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  13. ↑ "The History Place – Hitler Youth: Road to Power 1923–1933". historyplace.com. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  14. ↑ "Hitler Youth Movement". History Learning Site. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  15. 1 2 "Bund deutscher Mädel (BDM) – Mädchen im Dritten Reich | ZbE". www.zukunft-braucht-erinnerung.de (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  16. ↑ "Aufgaben der Hitlerjugend". Spurensuche in der Obergrafschaft (in German). 31 October 2008. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  17. ↑ "GRIN – Bund Deutscher Mädel". grin.com (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  18. ↑ "The Nazi Expulsion of Professors". jbuff.com. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  19. 1 2 "The Role of Women in the Third Reich | Fall 2015 | Washington State University". history.libraries.wsu.edu. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  20. ↑ Windolf, Paul (5 March 2018). Expansion And Structural Change. Routledge. ISBN 9780429980282.
  21. ↑ von Münch, Eva Marie. "Frau und Robe". Die Zeit. DIE ZEIT Verlagsgruppe. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  22. ↑ Derrida, Jacques; Weber, Elisabeth (2004). Questioning Judaism. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804742207.
  23. ↑ Mgr. Horňáček, PhD, Milan (23 April 2018). "Das Bild der Frau in der NS-Zeitschrift "NS-Frauen-Warte"" (PDF). theses.cz.
  24. ↑ Brennan, Barbra. "Builders of a Nation: Women's Experiences in Postwar Germany" (PDF).
  25. ↑ Baumeister, Dr. Hella. "Arbeit für Frauen". webcache.googleusercontent.com. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  26. ↑ Rachel, Century (2017). Female Administrators of the Third Reich. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
  27. ↑ "Das Grundgesetz, Artikel 3(2)". Deutscher Bundestag. Federal Republic of Germany.
  28. ↑ "Deutscher Bundestag – X. Das Finanzwesen". Deutscher Bundestag (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  29. ↑ "Gleichberechtigung von Mann und Frau". egora.uni-muenster.de. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  30. ↑ "Die Vier Mütter Des GrunDGesetzes". webcache.googleusercontent.com. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  31. 1 2 "60 Jahre Grundgesetz: Die Mutter der Gleichberechtigung". Die Zeit (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  32. ↑ "Pionierinnen der Wissenschaft – Frauen an den Universiten". archiv.rwth-aachen.de. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  33. ↑ Böttger, Barbara (1990). Das Recht auf Gleichheit und Differenz. Verlag Westfälisches Dampfboo. p. Preview in Google booksearch. ISBN 3924550441.
  34. 1 2 3 Deutschland, Stiftung Deutsches Historisches Museum, Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik. "Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Biografie: Frieda Nadig". hdg.de (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  35. ↑ unknown author. "Frieda Nadig 1897 – 1970". Lemo, Lebendiges Museum Online. Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  36. 1 2 3 "Helene Weber, Geschichte der CDU, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung". Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  37. ↑ Vom Hofe, Ina. "Helene Weber". Konrad Adenauer Stiftung. Konrad Adenauer Stiftung e.V. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  38. ↑ Heyer, Laura. "Deutscher Bundestag – Vor 60 Jahren: Bundestag beschließt Gleichberechtigungsgesetz". Deutscher Bundestag (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  39. ↑ "Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB)". Juris. Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
  40. ↑ "Strafgesetzbuch (StGB)". Juristisches Informationssystem für die BRD. Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
  41. ↑ "1900: Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch – The German Civil Code". Duhaime.org – Learn Law. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  42. ↑ Maier, Cornelia. Menschenrechte als Frauenrechte und Frauenrechte als Menschenrechte: Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Elisabeth Selberts Leben und Beitrag (in German). diplom.de. ISBN 9783832453589.
  43. 1 2 3 "Die wichtigsten Etappen zur Gleichberechtigung". lpb-bw.de. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  44. ↑ Berghahn, Sabine. "Der Ritt auf der Schnecke- Rechtliche Gleichstellung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (PDF). Freie Universität Berlin. FU Berlin. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  45. ↑ "Germany – History Background". education.stateuniversity.com. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  46. ↑ Weinkopf, Claudia (2014). "Women's Employment in Germany". Revue de l'OFCE (133): 189–214. doi:10.3917/reof.133.0189. ISSN 1265-9576.
  47. ↑ Schulz, Kristina (2002). Der lange Atem der Provokation. Die Frauenbewegung in der Bundesrepublik und in Frankreich 1968–1976. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag. p. 45. ISBN 3-593-37110-3.
  48. ↑ "Wie wütende Studenten eine Revolte gegen das braune Erbe anstießen". Der Tagesspiegel (in German). 9 March 2018. ISSN 1865-2263. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  49. ↑ Davis, Mark (2015-05-05). "How World War II shaped modern Germany". euronews. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  50. ↑ Lenz, Ilse (2011). Die Neue Frauenbewegung in Deutschland: Abschied vom kleinen Unterschied. Ausgewählte Quellen (2. aktualisierte Auflage ed.). VS Verlag. p. 38. ISBN 978-3-531-17436-5.
  51. 1 2 3 WELT (10 September 2008). "Vor 40 Jahren: Neue Frauenbewegung begann mit drei Tomaten". DIE WELT. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  52. ↑ Dr. Hertkampf, Susanne. "Ein Tomatenwurf und seine Folgen". Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  53. 1 2 "FMT : Chronik der Neuen Frauenbewegung in Deutschland: Vorfrühling 1968–1970 – FMT". frauenmediaturm.de. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
  54. ↑ Bildung, Bundeszentrale für politische. "bpb.de – Frauenbewegung". bpb.de (in German). Retrieved 24 April 2018.
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