Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
- Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behavior)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes what a computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programing)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
- Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
- Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
- Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
- Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming^[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language	Number of Paradigms	Concurrent	Constraints	Dataflow	Declarative	Distributed	Functional	Metaprogramming	Generic	Imperative	Logic	Reflection	Object-oriented	Pipelines	Visual	Rule-based	Other paradigms
Ada^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]	5	Yes^{[a 1]}	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
ALF	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
AmigaE	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
APL	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
C++	7 (15)	Yes^[7]^[8]^[9]	Library^[10]	Library^[11]^[12]	Library^[13]^[14]	Library^[15]^[16]	Yes	Yes^[17]	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	Library^[18]^[19]	Library^[20]	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^[21]	No	Library^[22]	Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C#	6 (7)	Yes	No	Library^{[a 4]}	No	No	Yes^{[a 5]}	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 6]}
ChucK	3	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Claire	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Common Lisp	5	Library^[23]	Library^[24]	Library^[25]	Yes^[26]	Library^[27]	Yes	Yes	Yes^[28]	Yes	Library^[29]	Yes	Yes (multiple dispatch, method combinations)^[30]^{[a 2]}	Library^[31]	No	Library^[32]	Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system^[33], Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl	5	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Curry	4	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
D (version 2.0)^[34]^[35]	6	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^[36]^{[a 3]}	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Dylan	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
E	3	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
ECMAScript^[37]^[38] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript)	4 (5)	partial (promises, native extensions)^{[a 8]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 9]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 10]}
Embarcadero Delphi	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Erlang	3	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No
Elixir	4	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No
Elm	6	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	reactive
F#	7 (8)	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	Library^{[a 4]}	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 6]}
Falcon	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Fortran	4 (5)	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 11]}	No	Yes^{[a 12]}	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
Go	4	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No
Haskell	2?	Yes	Library^[39]	No	Yes	Library^[40]	Yes (lazy)	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Template:Reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io	4	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 9]}	No	No	No	No
J	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Java	6	Yes	Library^[41]	Library^[42]	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Julia	9 (17)	Yes	Library^[43]	Library^[44]^[45]	Library^[46]	Yes	Yes (eager)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Library^[47]	Yes	Yes (multiple dispatch, not traditional single)	Yes	No	Library^[48]^[49]	Multiple dispatch, Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy^[50] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin	8	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No
LabVIEW	4	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Lava	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	Yes	No	No
Leda	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA)	9	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	Yes	No
Lua	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 9]}	No	No	No	No
MATLAB	6 (10)	Toolbox^[51]	Toolbox^[52]	Yes^[53]	No	Toolbox^[54]	No	Yes^[55]	Yes^[56]	No	No	Yes^[57]	Yes^[58]	No	Yes^[59]	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle	7	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Object Pascal	4	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
OCaml	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Oz	11	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	No	Yes	No
Perl	8 (9)	Yes^[60]	Library^[61]	Yes^[62]	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	No	No	No
Perl6	10	Yes^[63]	Yes^[64]	Yes^[65]	No	Library^[66]	Yes	Yes^[67]	Yes^[68]	Yes	No	Yes^[69]	Yes^[70]	Yes	No	No	Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
PHP^[71]^[72]^[73]	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Poplog	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
Prograph	3	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	Yes	No	No
Python	5 (10)	Library^[74]^[75]	Library^[76]	No	No	Library^[77]	Partial	Yes^[78]^[79]	Yes^[80]^[81]	Yes	Library^[82]	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	structured
R	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes^[83]	No	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket	6	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
ROOP	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No
Ruby	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)	6	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^[84]^[85]	Yes^[86]	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Scala^[87]^[88]	9	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	Yes^{[a 13]}	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Simula	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
SISAL	3	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Spreadsheets	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No
Swift	7	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^[89]	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 9]}^[90]	No	No	No	No
Visual Basic .NET	6 (7)	Yes	No	Library^{[a 4]}	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 6]}
Windows PowerShell	6	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	No	No	No
Wolfram Language & Mathematica	13^[91] (14)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^[92]	No	Yes	Knowledge Based

Notes

↑ rendezvous and monitor-like based
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Class-based
1 2 3 4 5 Template metaprogramming
1 2 3 using TPL Dataflow
↑ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
1 2 3 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
1 2 3 4 5 actor programming
↑ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
1 2 3 4 Prototype-based
↑ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
↑ purely functional
↑ parameterized classes
↑ Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine.

Citations

↑ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". IEEEXplore. IEEE.
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
↑ Thread support
↑ Atomics support
↑ Memory model
↑ Gecode
↑ SystemC
↑ Boost.Iostreams
↑ Boolinq
↑ AraRat
↑ OpenMPI
↑ Boost.MPI
↑ Boost.MPL
↑ LC++
↑ Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine.
↑ Reflect Library
↑ N3534
↑ Boost.Spirit
↑ many concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions
↑ constraint programming inside CL through extensions
↑ dataflow extension
↑ by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
↑ MPI, etc via language extensions
↑ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
↑ Prolog implemented as a language extension
↑ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
↑ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation:
↑ rule-based programming extension
↑ through the Meta Object Protocol
↑ D Language Feature Table
↑ Phobos std.algorithm
↑ D language String Mixins
↑ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
↑ Object Oriented Programming in JavaScript gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
↑ Prolog embedding
↑ Cloud Haskell
↑ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
↑ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
↑ https://jump.readthedocs.io/en/latest/
↑ https://github.com/MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl
↑ https://github.com/JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl
↑ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
↑ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
↑ https://github.com/abeschneider/PEGParser.jl
↑ https://github.com/gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl
↑ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ interpreter based threads
↑ Moose
↑ Higher Order Perl
↑ Channels and other mechanisms
↑
↑ Feed operator
↑ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
↑ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2011/12/14/meta-programming-what-why-and-how/
↑ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
↑ https://docs.perl6.org/language/mop
↑ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
↑ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
↑ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "DistributedProgramming". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "PEP 443 -- Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "PEP 484 -- Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\accessdate=13 July 2017.
↑ "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
↑ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
↑ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
↑ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
↑ Scala Language Specification
↑ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq:". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
↑ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[rend-mon-7] rendezvous and monitor-like based

[class-8] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Class-based

[temp-meta-20] 1 2 3 4 5 Template metaprogramming

[tpldf-26] 1 2 3 using TPL Dataflow

[lambda-27] y lambda support (lazy functional programming)

[rx-28] 1 2 3 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)

[actor-42] 1 2 3 4 5 actor programming

[nodejs-cluster-46] using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.

[prototype-47] 1 2 3 4 Prototype-based

[rxjs-48] using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)

[pure-func-49] urely functional

[param-class-50] rameterized classes

[akka-101] Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine.

[1] Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". IEEEXplore. IEEE.

[2] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization

[3] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems

[4] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units

[5] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms

[6] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions

[9] Thread support

[10] Atomics support

[11] Memory model

[12] Gecode

[13] SystemC

[14] Boost.Iostreams

[15] Boolinq

[16] AraRat

[17] OpenMPI

[18] Boost.MPI

[19] Boost.MPL

[21] LC++

[22] Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine.

[23] Reflect Library

[24] N3534

[25] Boost.Spirit

[29] y concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions

[30] straint programming inside CL through extensions

[31] taflow extension

[32] y creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative

[33] MPI, etc via language extensions

[34] template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)

[35] Prolog implemented as a language extension

[36] Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.

[37] ted by the user via a short macro, example of implementation:

[38] rule-based programming extension

[39] through the Meta Object Protocol

[40] D Language Feature Table

[41] Phobos std.algorithm

[43] D language String Mixins

[44] The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.

[45] Object Oriented Programming in JavaScript gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.

[51] Prolog embedding

[52] Cloud Haskell

[53] ttps://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API

[54] ttps://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK

[55] ttps://jump.readthedocs.io/en/latest/

[56] ttps://github.com/MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl

[57] ttps://github.com/JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl

[58] ttps://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia

[59] ttps://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia

[60] ttps://github.com/abeschneider/PEGParser.jl

[61] ttps://github.com/gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl

[62] Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl

[63] "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[64] "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[65] "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[66] "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[67] "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[68] "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[69] "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[70] "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[71] "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[72] terpreter based threads

[73] Moose

[74] Higher Order Perl

[75] Channels and other mechanisms

[76] ↑

[77] Feed operator

[78] ttps://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module

[79] ttps://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2011/12/14/meta-programming-what-why-and-how/

[80] ttps://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles

[81] ttps://docs.perl6.org/language/mop

[82] ttps://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles

[83] PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions

[84] PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)

[85] PHP Manual, Anonymous functions

[86] "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[87] "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[88] "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[89] "DistributedProgramming". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[90] "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[91] "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[92] "PEP 443 -- Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[93] "PEP 484 -- Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[94] "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[95] "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\accessdate=13 July 2017.

[96] "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

[97] "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

[98] The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1

[99] An Overview of the Scala Programming Language

[100] Scala Language Specification

[102] "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[103] "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq:". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[104] Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.

[105] External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

Types of programming languages
Actor-based Array Aspect-oriented Class-based Concatenative Concurrent Dataflow Declarative Domain-specific Dynamic Esoteric Event-driven Extensible Functional Imperative Logic Macro Metaprogramming Multi-paradigm Object-based Object-oriented Pipeline Procedural Prototype-based Reflective Rule-based Scripting Stack based Synchronous Templating
Assembly Compiled Interpreted Machine
Low-level High-level Very high-level
First generation Second generation Third generation Fourth generation Fifth generation
Non-English-based Visual