Basal-like carcinoma

The basal-like carcinoma is a recently proposed subtype of breast cancer defined by its gene expression and protein expression profile.[1]

Since Preou et al. divided breast invasive carcinoma into 4 subtypes, Kapp et al.[2] further compared multiple sets of cDNA microarray datasets, dividing breast cancer into five molecular subtypes, including luminal subtype A, luminal sub typeB), normal breast-like subtype, HER-2 overexpression subtype) and basal-like Subtype. This marks the modern clinical pathological diagnosis of breast cancer has transferred from simple morphological diagnosis into morphological and molecular features combined diagnosis. Genotyping fundamentally changes the concept of breast cancer and provides breast cancer patients with more improved prognosis and treatment. In all molecular subtypes, basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) is still the biggest challenge in current research due to its strong invasiveness and molecular biological characteristics.

Epidemiology

BLBC is the most common among young and premenopausal women in Africa and African Americans.[3][4] It is generally believed that BLBC occurs mostly among young people, however the latest large sample studies based on immunohistochemistry showed that the average age of BLBC patients is 47.7 to 55 years old. Incidence of BLBC and breastfeeding were negative related. Compared with ductal breast cancer, BLBC is more common among women who have earlier menarche age; whose first-term gestational age is less than 26 years old. Women who have low economic and social status, metabolic syndrome and use contraceptives for more than one year are more likely to develop BLBC. Increased waist-hip ratio before menopause has significant correlation with BLBC.[5][6] Although tumors are often larger and of later stage, basal-like subtypes are more sensitive to anthracycline-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy than luminal breast cancers. Patients that had pathologic complete response to chemotherapy had a good prognosis regardless of subtype. The percentage of patients with minimal residual disease (stage 0-I) after chemotherapy was higher among basal-like (19 of 33, 58%) than HER2+/ER− (5 of 11, 45%).[7] As an independent molecular subtype, BLBC's special biological behavior and poor prognosis attributes to its significance in the clinical research of breast cancer. BLBC has a high proliferative activity and strong invasiveness, suggesting that it is easier for recurrence and metastasis, and the overall survival period is significantly shortened.[8] BLBC is easier to metastasize to brain and lung through blood vessels, but less to bone and liver, suggesting that tumors have unique metastasis mechanism and once metastasis occurs, the prognosis is very poor. Although many research results need to be further confirmed, evidence suggests BLBC regardless of clinical characteristics or the treatment responses, is a group with heterogeneity.

Molecular pathology

The most common histopathological type is invasive ductal carcinoma. It can also be metaplastic carcinoma, medullary carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma, with high grade, high mitosis count.[9] Central necrosis, apoptotic cells, and stroma lymphocyte reaction and a small amount of interstitial components can be seen through microscopic examination.[10] In BLBC, p53 mutations are usually found and the expression epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR or HER-1) and c-kit are usually positive. Through the genetic hybridization techniques, BLBC is verified to have the most complex gene phenotypes. The relationship between BLBC and familial BRCA1-associated breast cancer has been discussed in recent years. Several studies have demonstrated that BRCA1-associated breast cancer is more likely to be a BLBC. However, there are few BRCA1 mutations in BLBC, indicating that it is likely to be epigenetic changes. Studies have reported that the negative regulatory factor of BRCA1 gene, ID4, is often highly expressed in BLBC suggesting that ID4 may play an important role in BLBC. Abnormal expression of other BRCA1 related proteins such as Fanconi protein, Bloom syndrome protein, Rad50 can also be the etiological mechanism of BLBC which needs further research. Although the molecular biology mechanisms for BRCA1 and BRCA2 are not understood very well, more and more evidence shows that there are abnormal BRBC1 pathway existing in BLBC.[11]

Proliferation and metastasis

Studies demonstrate that BLBC has a high mitotic index and proliferation ratio. EGFR promotes cell proliferation by activating Ras/MAPK/MAPK pathways. BLBC is characterized by low expression of RB and CyclinD1 gene and high expression of E2F Transcription Factor 3 (E2F-3) as well as Cyclin E genes.[12] The Cyclin D-CDK4/CDK6 complex phosphorylates RB and promotes cell entry into the S phase by releasing the E2F family of transcription factors (inducing CyclinE expression). Additionally, Cyclin E1 is more easily replicated in BLBC than other types of breast cancer, and its expression suggests a poor prognosis.[13] Deletion of RB gene and overexpression of cyclin E play a significant role in the malignant proliferation of BLBC. More and more studies have shown that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays an important role in the invasiveness of breast cancer. EMT refers to the loss of epithelial differentiation characteristics of epithelial cells and shows the characteristics of mesenchymal differentiation, resulting in decreased cell adhesion and increased mobility of cells and allowing cancer cells to obtain infiltration and metastasis.[14] Yang et al.[15] believed that EMT is more likely to occur in BLBC and is stimulated by abnormal microenvironment such as hypoxia. EMT markers such as N-cadherin and vimentin are highly expressed in BLBC, while epithelial markers E-cadherin are often absent.[16] Activation of TGF-β, Wnt, and Notch pathways in BLBC leads to the expression of EMT-related transcription factors FOXC2, Twist, Slug, Snail, and LBX1, and then resulting in down-regulation of E-cadherin and promotion of EMT.[17] Besides, EGFR functions in motility and invasiveness by inducing Twist expression, and thus promoting EMT.[18] It has been reported that EMT in tumors may be accompanied by an increase in neovascularization, which may accelerate the occurrence of hematogenous metastasis in cancer cells.[19] In short, EMT played a crucial role in the transfer of BLBC.

References

  1. ↑ Phenotypic evaluation of the basal-like subtype of invasive breast carcinoma, Modern Pathology 19:264-271 (2006), via www.nature.com
  2. ↑ discovery and validation of breast cancer subtypes, BMC Genomics,7:231(2006)
  3. ↑ 2007 differences in risk factors for breast cancer molecular subtypes in a apopulation-based study, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 16(3):439-443(2007)
  4. ↑ Epidemiology of basal-like breast cancer, Breast Cancer Res Treatment, 109(1):123-139(2008)
  5. ↑ 2007 differences in risk factors for breast cancer molecular subtypes in a population-based study, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 16(3):439-443(2007)
  6. ↑ Epidemiology of basal-like breast cancer, Breast Cancer Res Treatment, 109(1):123-139(2008)
  7. ↑ The triple negative paradox: primary tumor chemosensitivity of breast cancer subtypes, Clin Cancer Res, 13(8):2329-2334(2007)
  8. ↑ Basal-like breast cancer: a critical review, J Clin Oncol, 26(15):2568-2581(2008)
  9. ↑ Prognostic markers in tripple negative breast cancer, Cancer, 109(1):25-32(2007)
  10. ↑ The basal subtype of breast carcinomas may represent the group of breast tumors that could benefit from EGFR targeted therapies, Breast, 16(1):104-107(2008)
  11. ↑ Loss of nuclear BRCA1 protein staining in normal tissue cells derived from BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers, Mutat Res, 619(1-2):104-112(2007)
  12. ↑ Abrogated response to cellular stress identifies DCIS associated with subsequent tumor events and defines basal-like breast tumors, Cancer Cell, 12(5):479-491(2007)
  13. ↑ Integrative analysis of cyclin protein levels identifies cyclin b1 as a classifier and predictor of outcomes in breast cancer, Clin Cancer Res, 15(11):3654-3662(2009)
  14. ↑ Epithelial--mesenchymal and mesenchymal--epithelial transitions in carcinoma progression, J Cell Physiol, 213(2):374-383(2007)
  15. ↑ Epithelial-mesenchymal transition: at the crossroads of development and tumor metastasis, 14(6):818-829(2008)
  16. ↑ Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in breast cancer relates to the basal-like phenotype, Cancer Res, 68(4):989-997(2008)
  17. ↑ The basal-like breast carcinoma phenotype is regulated by SLUG gene expression, J Pathol, 214(1):25-37(2008)
  18. ↑ Epidermal growth factor receptor cooperates with signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 to induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition in cancer cells via up-regulation of TWIST gene expression, Cancer Res, 67(19):9066-76(2007)
  19. ↑ Up-regulation of Twist induces angiogenesis and correlates with metastasis in hepatocellular carcinoma, J Exp Clin Cancer Res, 26(3):385-94(2007)
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