Aquaculture of giant kelp

Giant kelp

Aquaculture of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is the cultivation of kelp for uses such as food, dietary supplements or potash.[1][2] Giant kelp contains compounds such as iodine, potassium, other minerals vitamins and carbohydrates.[3][4]

History

At the beginning of the 20th century California kelp beds were harvested for their potash.[1][5][6] Commercial interest increased during the 1970s and the 1980s due to the production of alginates, and also for biomass production for animal feed due to the energy crisis.[5][6]{{sfn Gerard|1987}} However commercial production for M. pyrifera never became a reality. With the end of the energy crisis and the decline in alginate prices, research into farming Macrocystis declined.[2]

The supply of M. pyrifera for alginate production relied heavily on restoration and management of natural beds during the early 1990s.[2][7] Other functions such as substrate stabilization were explored in California, where the “Kelp bed project” transplanted 3-6m adult specimens to increase the stability of the harbor and promote diversity.[7][3][8]

Twenty-first century

The demand for M. pyrifera increased due to newfound uses such as fertilizers, bioremediation and as feed for abalone and sea urchins.[2][7] Research is investigating its use as feed for other aquaculture species such as shrimp.[7][9]

China and Chile are the largest producers of aquatic plants, each producing over 300,000 tonnes in 2007. How much of this total can be attributed to M. pyrifera is unclear.[10] Both countries culture a variety of species, in Chile 50% of the production involves Phaeophytes and the other 50% is Rhodophytes.[11] China produces a larger variety of seaweeds including chlorophytes.[12] Experiments in Chile are exploring hybrids between M. pyrifera and M. integrifolia.[13]

Methods

The most common method of cultivating M. pyrifera was developed in China in the 1950s. It is called the long line cultivation system, where the sporelings are produced in a cooled water greenhouse and then planted out in the ocean attached to long lines.[14] The depth at which they are grown varies. Since this species has an alternation of generations in its life cycle, involving a large sporophyte and a microscopic gametophyte. The sporophyte is harvested as seaweed. The mature sporophytes form the reproductive organs called sori. They are found on the underside of the leaves and produce the motile zoospores that germinate into the gametophyte.[15][16] To induce sporalation, plants are dried up to twelve hours and placed in a seeding container filled with cool seawater of about 9-10 °C; salinity of 30% and a pH of 7.8-7.9.[11][14][17] Photoperiod is controlled during sporolation and growth phases. A synthetic twine of about 2 – 6mm in diameter is placed on the bottom of the same container after sporalation. The released zoospores attach themselves to the twine and begin to geminate into male and female gametophytes.[11][14][17] Upon maturity these gametophytes release sperm and egg cells that fuse in the water column and attach themselves to the same substrate as the gametophytes (i.e. the synthetic twine).[11][14][17] These plants are then reared into young sporophyte plants for up to 60 days.[14][17]

These strings are either wrapped around or are cut up into small pieces and attached to a larger diameter cultivation rope. The cultivation ropes vary, but extend approximately 60m with floating buoys attached.[11] The depths vary. In China, M. pyrifera is cultivated on the surface with floating buoys attached every 2-3m and the ends of the rope attached to a wooden peg anchored to the substrate. Individual ropes are usually hung at 50 cm intervals.[14] In Chile M. pyrifera is grown at a depth of 2m using buoys to keep the plants at a constant depth.[17] These are then let alone to grow until harvest. Problems that afflict this method include management of the transition from spore to gametophyte and embryonic sporophyte which are done on a terrestrial facility with careful control of water flow, temperature, nutrients and light.[14] The Japanese use a forced cultivation method where 2 years of growth is achieved within a single growing season by controlling the above inputs.[14]

In China a project for offshore or deep water cultivation was also examined that used various farm structures to facilitate growth, including pumping; nutrients from the deep waters into the growing kelps. The greatest benefit for this approach was that the algae were released from size constraints of shallow waters. Issues with operational and farm designs plagued deep water cultivation and prevented further cultivation in this manner.[14]

Harvesting

The duration of cultivation varies by region and farming intensity. This species is usually harvested after two growth seasons (2 years).[11][14] M. pyrifera that is artificially cultivated on ropes is harvested by a pulley system that is attached to boats that pull the individual lines on the vessels for cleaning.[11][14] Other countries such as the US that relies primarily on naturally grown M. pyrifera, use boats to harvest the surface canopy (several times per year). This is possible due to fast growth while the vegetative and reproductive parts are left undamaged.[3][18]

Control

In the UK, legislation defines giant kelp as a plant that should not be allowed to grow in the wild. invasive specimens are mechanically removed.[19]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 Abbott 1996.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Gutierrez et al. 2006.
  3. 1 2 3 Bushing 2000.
  4. ↑ Connor 1989, p. 58.
  5. 1 2 Neushul 1987.
  6. 1 2 Druehl et al. 1988.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Buschmann et al. 2008.
  8. ↑ Simenstad, Estes & Kenyon 1978.
  9. ↑ Cruz-Suárez et al. 2009.
  10. ↑ Fish and Agriculture Organization 2007.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Buschmann et al. 2005.
  12. ↑ Wu & Lin 1987.
  13. ↑ Westermeier et al. 2006.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Mariculture of Seaweeds
  15. ↑ Mondragón & Mondragón 2003.
  16. ↑ Prescott 1968, pp. 226-227.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Westermeier, Patiño & Müller 2006.
  18. ↑ Hoek et al. 1995, p. 170.
  19. ↑ Schedule 9 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981

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