Social Democratic Party of Germany

The Social Democratic Party of Germany (German: Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD; [zoˈtsi̯aːldemoˌkʁaːtɪʃə paʁˌtaɪ ˈdɔʏtʃlants]) is a social-democratic[2][3][4][5] political party in Germany.

Social Democratic Party of Germany

Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands
AbbreviationSPD
LeaderSaskia Esken
Norbert Walter-Borjans
General SecretaryLars Klingbeil
Deputy Leaders
  • Klara Geywitz
  • Hubertus Heil
  • Kevin Kühnert
  • Serpil Midyatli
  • Anke Rehlinger
Founded23 May 1863 (1863-05-23)
Merger ofADAV and SDAP
HeadquartersWilly-Brandt-Haus D-10911 Berlin, Germany
NewspaperVorwärts
Student wing
  • Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund
    (1946–1961)
  • Sozialdemokratischer Hochschulbund
    (1961–1972)
  • Juso-Hochschulgruppen
    (since 1973)
Youth wingJusos
Women's wingAssociation of Social Democratic Women
Paramilitary wingReichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold (1924-1933)
Membership (December 2019) 419,300[1]
IdeologySocial democracy[2][3][4][5]
Pro-Europeanism[6]
European federalism[7]
Factions:
Centrism[8]
Third Way[9]
Democratic socialism[10]
Social liberalism[11]
Political positionCentre-left[12]
European affiliationParty of European Socialists
International affiliationProgressive Alliance
European Parliament groupProgressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats
Colours     Red
Bundestag
152 / 709
Bundesrat
21 / 69
State Parliaments
465 / 1,868
European Parliament (German seats)
16 / 96
Ministers-president of states
7 / 16
Party flag
Website
spd.de

Led by Saskia Esken and Norbert Walter-Borjans since the party's 2019 leadership election, the party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in Germany along with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). The Social Democrats have governed at the federal level in Germany as part of a grand coalition with the CDU and the Christian Social Union (CSU) since December 2013 following the results of the 2013 and 2017 federal elections. The party participates in 11 of 16 state governments and 7 of them are governed by SPD Minister-Presidents. The SPD is a member of the Party of European Socialists and initiated the founding of the international Progressive Alliance of social-democratic parties on 22 May 2013[13][14][15] after criticising the Socialist International for its acceptance of authoritarian parties.

Established in 1863, the SPD is by far the oldest existing political party represented in the German Parliament and was one of the first Marxist-influenced parties in the world. Banned under the Anti-Socialist Laws from 1878 to 1890, between 1890 and 1930 the SPD "was Europe's largest Marxist party and consistently won the largest popular vote in German elections."[16] During the First World War, the party split into a pro-war mainstream and the pacifist Independent Social Democratic Party, a part of which went on to form the Communist Party of Germany. The social democrats came to power during the 1918–19 revolution. During the Weimar Republic, the SPD was the strongest party until 1932 and Friedrich Ebert served as the first President of Germany. During the Nazi era (1933–45) the SPD was again banned.

After the Second World War, the party was re-established. In East Germany, it was forced to merge with the Communist Party to form the pro-Soviet Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In West Germany, the SPD was one of two major parties on the federal level, alongside the centre-right CDU/CSU. In its 1959 Godesberg Program, the party dropped its commitment to Marxism, becoming a big-tent party of the centre-left. From 1969 to 1982 and from 1998 to 2005, the Chancellors of Germany were Social Democrats. In other years the CDU headed the governments, with the SPD either in opposition or as a junior partner in "grand coalitions". The SPD's share of votes has declined significantly since the 2000s.

History

SPD membership statistics (in thousands) since 1945

The General German Workers' Association (Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein, ADAV) founded in 1863 and the Social Democratic Workers' Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands, SDAP) founded in 1869 later merged in 1875 under the name Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands, SAPD). From 1878 to 1890 the Anti-Socialist Laws banned any grouping or meeting that aimed at spreading socialist principles, but the party still gained support in elections. In 1890, when the ban was lifted and it could again present electoral lists, the party adopted its current name. The SPD "was Europe's largest Marxist party and consistently won the largest popular vote in German election between 1890 and 1930".[17] In the years leading up to World War I (1914–1918) the party remained ideologically radical in official principle, although many party officials tended to moderation in everyday politics. In the 1912 German federal election the SPD claimed not only the most votes but also the most Reichstag seats of any German party.

Despite the agreement of the Second International to oppose militarism,[18] the Social Democrats supported war in 1914. In response to this and to the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917 in Russia, members of the left-wing and of the far-left of the SPD formed alternative parties, first the Spartacus League (1914–1919), then the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD, April 1917–1931) while the more conservative faction became known as the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD, 1917–1922). Social democrats came to power during the German Revolution of 1918–1919, dominating the Council of the People's Deputies interim government.

From 1918 the SPD played an important role in the political system of the Weimar Republic, Friedrich Ebert was its first president, serving from 1919 until his death in 1925. However, the SPD took part in coalition governments only for a few years (1918–1921, 1923 and 1928–1930), being the main opposition for the remainder. Adolf Hitler banned the SPD in 1933 under the Enabling Act and the National Socialist régime imprisoned, killed or forced into exile SPD party officials. In exile, the party used the name Sopade. The Social Democrats had been the only party to vote against the Enabling Act, while the Communist Party was blocked from voting.

In 1945 the Allied administrations in the Western zones allowed the re-establishment of the SPD. In East Germany, the Soviet occupying power forced the social democrats to merge with the communists in 1946. This resulted in the communist-dominated Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) that ruled East Germany in a quasi single-party system from 1949 to 1989. In West Germany, the SPD remained independent and one of two major parties, alongside the Christian Democratic Union. In its 1959 Godesberg Program, the party dropped its commitment to Marxism, becoming a big-tent party of the centre-left, also appealing to middle-class voters.

After being in opposition to centre-right governments for 17 years, it participated in a first grand coalition from 1966 to 1969. SPD chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt ruled in coalitions with the liberal FDP from 1969 to 1982. The party's popularity peaked in 1972, when the SPD won 45.8 percent of votes. Subsequently, the social democrats were in opposition for another 16 years. Shortly before the German reunification in 1990, the East German Social Democratic Party (founded during the 1989 Peaceful Revolution) merged with the West German SPD. The party returned to power under Gerhard Schröder in a red-green coalition from 1998 to 2005. Afterwards, the SPD was either the junior partner in coalitions with the centre-right CDU/CSU (2005–09 and since 2013) or in opposition (2009–13). The social democrats share of votes halved from 40.9 percent in 1998 to 20.5 percent in 2017.

Party platform

The SPD was established as a Marxist party in 1875. However, the Social Democrats underwent a major shift in policies reflected in the differences between the Heidelberg Program of 1925 which "called for the transformation of the capitalist system of private ownership of the means of production to social ownership"[19] and the Godesberg Program of 1959 which aimed to broaden its voter base and move its political position toward the centre.[20] After World War II, under the leadership of Kurt Schumacher the SPD re-established itself as a socialist party representing the interests of the working class and the trade unions. However, with the Godesberg Program the party evolved from a socialist working-class party to a modern social-democratic party working within liberal capitalism.

Sigmar Gabriel, Vice Chancellor of Germany (2013–2018) and former chairman of the SPD

The current party platform of the SPD espouses the goal of social democracy, which is seen as a vision of a societal arrangement in which freedom and social justice are paramount. According to the party platform, freedom, justice and social solidarity form the basis of social democracy. The coordinated social market economy should be strengthened and its output should be distributed fairly. The party sees that economic system as necessary in order to ensure the affluence of the entire population. The SPD also tries to protect the society's poor with a welfare state. Concurrently, it advocates a sustainable fiscal policy that does not place a burden on future generations while eradicating budget deficits. In social policy, the Social Democrats stand for civil and political rights in an open society. In foreign policy, the party aims at ensuring global peace by balancing global interests with democratic means, thus European integration is one of the main priorities of the party. The SPD supports economic regulations to limit potential losses for banks and people. They support a common European economic and financial policy and to prevent speculative bubbles as well as environmentally sustainable growth.[21]

Internal factions

The SPD is mostly composed of members belonging to either of the two main wings, namely the Keynesian social democrats and Third Way moderate social democrats belonging to the Seeheimer Kreis. While the more moderate Seeheimer Kreis generally support the Agenda 2010 programs introduced by Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, the Keynesian social democrats continue to defend classical left-wing policies and the welfare state. The classical left-wing of the SPD claims that in recent years the welfare state has been curtailed through reform programs such as the Agenda 2010, Hartz IV and the more economic liberal stance of the SPD, which were endorsed by centrist social democrats. As a reaction to the Agenda 2010, there was in 2005 the ascension of an inner party dissident movement which led ultimately to the foundation of the new party Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative (Arbeit & soziale Gerechtigkeit – Die Wahlalternative, WASG). The WASG was later merged into The Left (Die Linke) in 2007.[22]

Base of support

Social structure

Before World War II, as the main non-revolutionary left-wing party the Social Democrats fared best among non-Catholic workers as well as intellectuals favouring social progressive causes and increased economic equality. Led by Kurt Schumacher after World War II, the SPD initially opposed both the social market economy and Konrad Adenauer's drive towards Western integration fiercely, but after Schumacher's death it accepted the social market economy and Germany's position in the Western alliance in order to appeal to a broader range of voters. It still remains associated with the economic causes of unionised employees and working class voters. In the 1990s, the left and moderate wings of the party drifted apart, culminating in a secession of a significant number of party members which later joined the socialist party WASG, which later merged into The Left (Die Linke).

Geographic distribution

Geographically, much of the SPD's current-day support comes from large cities, especially of northern and western Germany and Berlin. As of 2019, 10 of the country's 15 biggest cities are led by SPD mayors. The metropolitan area of the Ruhr Area, where coal mining and steel production were once the biggest sources of revenues, have provided a significant base for the SPD in the 20th century. In the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, the SPD has governed without interruption since 1949. In southern Germany, the SPD typically garners less support except in the largest cities. At the 2009 federal election, the party lost its only constituency in the entire state of Bavaria (in Munich).

Small town and rural support comes especially from the traditionally Protestant areas of northern Germany and Brandenburg (with notable exceptions such as Western Pomerania where CDU leader Angela Merkel has her constituency) and a number of university towns. A striking example of the general pattern is the traditionally Catholic Emsland, where the Social Democrats generally gain a low percentage of votes, whereas the Reformed Protestant region of East Frisia directly to the north, with its strong traditional streak of Anti-Catholicism, is one of their strongest constituencies. Further south, the SPD also enjoys solid support in northern Hesse, parts of Palatinate and the Saarland. The social democrats are weakest in the south-eastern states of Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, where the party's percentage of votes dropped to single-digit figures in the 2018 and 2019 elections.

Election results

Election results and governments since 1949

General German elections

The SPD, at times called SAPD, participated in general elections determining the members of parliament. For the elections until 1933, the parliament was called Reichstag, except of the one of 1919 which was called the National Assembly and since 1949 the parliament is called Bundestag. Note that changes in borders (1871, 1919, 1920, 1949, 1957 and 1990) varied the number of eligible voters whereas electoral laws also changed the ballot system (only constituencies until 1912, only party lists until 1949 and a mixed system thereafter), the suffrage (women vote since 1919; minimum active voting age was 25 till 1918, 20 till 1946, 21 till 1972 and 18 since), the number of seats (fixed or flexible) and the length of the legislative period (three or four years). The list begins after the SPD was formed in 1875, when labour parties unified to only form the SPD (then SAPD, current name since 1890).

Election year Constituency votes Party list votes % of
overall votes (until 1912)
party list votes (as of 1919)
Overall seats won +/– Government
1877 493,447 9.1 (4th)
13 / 397
In opposition
1878 437,158 7.6 (5th)
9 / 397
4 In opposition
1881 311,961 6.1 (7th)
13 / 397
4 In opposition
1884 549,990 9.7 (5th)
24 / 397
11 In opposition
1887 763,102 10.1 (5th)
11 / 397
13 In opposition
1890 1,427,323 19.7 (1st)
35 / 397
24 In opposition
1893 1,786,738 23.3 (1st)
44 / 397
9 In opposition
1898 2,107,076 27.2 (1st)
56 / 397
12 In opposition
1903 3,010,771 31.7 (1st)
81 / 397
25 In opposition
1907 3,259,029 28.9 (1st)
43 / 397
38 In opposition
1912 4,250,399 34.8 (1st)
110 / 397
67 In opposition
In coalition
In coalition
1919 11,509,048 37.9 (1st)
165 / 423
55 In coalition
1920 6,179,991 21.9 (1st)
102 / 459
63 providing parliamentary support
In coalition
providing parliamentary support
In coalition
In opposition
May 1924 6,008,905 20.5 (1st)
100 / 472
2 In opposition
December 1924 7,881,041 26.0 (1st)
131 / 493
31 In opposition
providing parliamentary support
In opposition
1928 9,152,979 29.8 (1st)
153 / 491
22 In coalition
1930 8,575,244 24.5 (1st)
143 / 577
10 In opposition
July 1932 7,959,712 21.6 (2nd)
133 / 608
10 In opposition
November 1932 7,247,901 20.4 (2nd)
121 / 584
12 In opposition
March 1933 7,181,629 18.3 (2nd)
120 / 667
1 In opposition
November 1933 Banned. National Socialist German Workers Party sole legal party.
1936 Banned. National Socialist German Workers Party sole legal party.
1938 Banned. National Socialist German Workers Party sole legal party.
1949 6,934,975 29.2 (2nd)
131 / 402
11 In opposition
1953 8,131,257 7,944,943 28.8 (2nd)
162 / 509
22 In opposition
1957 11,975,400 11,875,339 31.8 (2nd)
181 / 519
19 In opposition
1961 11,672,057 11,427,355 36.2 (2nd)
203 / 521
22 In opposition
1965 12,998,474 12,813,186 39.3 (2nd)
217 / 518
14 CDU/CSU–SPD
1969 14,402,374 14,065,716 42.7 (2nd)
237 / 518
20 SPD–FDP
1972 18,228,239 17,175,169 45.8 (1st)
242 / 518
5 SPD–FDP
1976 16,471,321 16,099,019 42.6 (2nd)
224 / 518
18 SPD–FDP
1980 16,808,861 16,260,677 42.9 (2nd)
228 / 519
4 SPD–FDP
1983 15,686,033 14,865,807 38.2 (2nd)
202 / 520
26 In opposition
1987 14,787,953 14,025,763 37.0 (2nd)
193 / 519
9 In opposition
1990 16,279,980 15,545,366 33.5 (2nd)
239 / 662
46 In opposition
1994 17,966,813 17,140,354 36.4 (2nd)
252 / 672
13 In opposition
1998 21,535,893 20,181,269 40.9 (1st)
298 / 669
43 SPD–Greens
2002 20,059,967 18,484,560 38.5 (1st)[23]
251 / 603
47 SPD–Greens
2005 18,129,100 16,194,665 34.2 (2nd)
222 / 614
29 CDU/CSU–SPD
2009 12,077,437 9,988,843 23.0 (2nd)
146 / 622
76 In opposition
2013 12,835,933 11,247,283 25.7 (2nd)
193 / 630
42 CDU/CSU–SPD
2017 11,426,613 9,538,367 20.5 (2nd)
153 / 709
40 CDU/CSU–SPD

European Parliament

Election year No. of
overall votes
% of
overall vote
No. of
overall seats won
+/–
1979 11,370,045 40.8 (1st)
33 / 81
1984 9,296,417 37.4 (2nd)
32 / 81
1
1989 10,525,728 37.3 (1st)
30 / 81
2
1994 11,389,697 32.2 (1st)
40 / 99
10
1999 8,307,085 30.7 (2nd)
33 / 99
7
2004 5,547,971 21.5 (2nd)
23 / 99
10
2009 5,472,566 20.8 (2nd)
23 / 99
0
2014 7,999,955 27.2 (2nd)
27 / 96
4
2019 5,914,953 15.8 (3rd)
16 / 96
11

State Parliaments (Länder)

State Parliament Election year No. of
overall votes
% of
overall vote
Seats Government
No. ± Position
Baden-Württemberg 2016 679,872 12.7 (4th)
19 / 143
16 4th Opposition
Bavaria 2018 1,317,942 9.7 (5th)
22 / 205
20 5th Opposition
Berlin 2016 352,369 21.6 (1st)
38 / 160
10 1st SPD–Left–Greens
Brandenburg 2019 331,238 26.2 (1st)
25 / 88
5 1st SPD–CDU–Greens
Bremen 2019 365,315 24.9 (2nd)
23 / 84
7 2nd SPD–Greens–Left
Hamburg 2020 1,554,760 39.0 (1st)
54 / 121
4 1st SPD–Greens
Hesse 2018 570,166 19.8 (3rd)
29 / 137
8 3rd Opposition
Lower Saxony 2017 1,413,990 36.9 (1st)
55 / 137
6 1st SPD–CDU
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern 2016 246,393 30.6 (1st)
28 / 71
2 1st SPD–CDU
North Rhine-Westphalia 2017 2,649,205 31.2 (2nd)
69 / 199
30 2nd Opposition
Rhineland-Palatinate 2016 771,848 36.2 (1st)
39 / 101
3 1st SPD–FDP–Greens
Saarland 2017 157,841 29.6 (2nd)
17 / 51
0 2nd CDU–SPD
Saxony 2019 167,289 7.7 (5th)
10 / 119
8 5th CDU–SPD–Greens
Saxony-Anhalt 2016 119,377 10.6 (4th)
11 / 87
15 4th CDU–SPD–Greens
Schleswig-Holstein 2017 400,635 27.2 (2nd)
21 / 73
1 2nd Opposition
Thuringia 2019 90,984 8.2 (4th)
8 / 90
4 4th Left–SPD–Greens

Leadership of the Social Democratic Party

The party is led by the Leader of the Social Democratic Party. They are supported by six Deputy Leaders and the party executive.

The current leaders are Saskia Esken and Norbert Walter-Borjans. The previous leader was Andrea Nahles. She announced her pending resignation on 2 June 2019.

As Germany is a federal republic, each of Germany's states have their own SPD party at the state level.

The current leaders of the SPD state parties are the following:

State Leader Seats Government
Baden-Württemberg Andreas Stoch
19 / 143
In opposition
Bavaria Natascha Kohnen
22 / 205
In opposition
Berlin Michael Müller
38 / 160
In coalition
Brandenburg Dietmar Woidke
30 / 88
In coalition
Bremen Sascha Karolin Aulepp
30 / 83
In coalition
Hamburg Melanie Leonhard
51 / 121
In coalition
Hesse Thorsten Schäfer-Gümbel
37 / 110
In opposition
Lower Saxony Stephan Weil
55 / 137
In coalition
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Manuela Schwesig
26 / 71
In coalition
North Rhine-Westphalia Sebastian Hartmann
69 / 199
In opposition
Rhineland-Palatinate Roger Lewentz
39 / 101
In coalition
Saarland Anke Rehlinger
17 / 51
In coalition
Saxony Martin Dulig
18 / 126
In coalition
Saxony-Anhalt Burkhard Lischka
11 / 87
In coalition
Schleswig-Holstein Serpil Midyatli
21 / 73
In opposition
Thuringia Wolfgang Tiefensee
13 / 91
In coalition

See also

References

  1. CDU und SPD verlieren Mitglieder - Grüne legen deutlich zu
  2. Nordsieck, Wolfram (2017). "Germany". Parties and Elections in Europe.
  3. Merkel, Wolfgang; Petring, Alexander; Henkes, Christian; Egle, Christoph (2008). Social Democracy in Power: the capacity to reform. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-43820-9.
  4. Almeida, Dimitri (2012). The Impact of European Integration on Political Parties: Beyond the Permissive Consensus. CRC Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-136-34039-0. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  5. Ashley Lavelle (2013). The Death of Social Democracy: Political Consequences in the 21st Century. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4094-9872-8. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  6. Krell, Christian (2009). Sozialdemokratie und Europa: Die Europapolitik von SPD, Labour Party und Parti Socialiste. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/Springer-Verlag.
  7. "Europawahl 2019: Vergleich der Positionen" (PDF). Wahl-O-Mat.
  8. Cliffe, Jeremy (1 December 2019). "The SPD's new left-wing leadership could prove just the jolt Germany needs". New Statesman America.
  9. Anderson, Karen; Meyer, Traute (2003). "The Third Way in Welfare State Reform? Social Democratic Pension Politics in Germany and Sweden" (PDF). In Bonoli, Giuliano; Powell, Martin (eds.). Social Democratic Party Policies in Contemporary Europe. Routledge/ECPR Studies in European Political Science. Abingdon, England: Routledge. pp. 141–160. ISBN 9780415304252. Retrieved 5 April 2020.
  10. Knight, Ben (2 May 2019). "Collectivization remarks split German Social Democrats". Deutsche Welle.
  11. Maron, Thomas (28 April 2017). "Das Sozialliberale ist tief in der SPD verwurzelt". Stuttgarter Zeitung.
  12. "Greek debt crisis: Violence in Athens ahead of Germany vote". BBC News Online. 26 February 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  13. "Progressive Alliance: Sozialdemokraten gründen weltweites Netzwerk". Der Spiegel. Hamburg, Germany. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
  14. "Sozialdemokratie: "Progressive Alliance" gegründet". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
  15. "Sozialistische Internationale hat ausgedient: SPD gründet "Progressive Alliance"". 22 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
  16. Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), p. 7.
  17. Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Poicy, September 1939-March 1942 (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2004), p. 7.
  18. In, for example, the International Socialist Congress, Stuttgart 1907.
  19. Brustein, William (1996). Logic of Evil: The Social Origins of the Nazi Party 1925–1933. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 131.
  20. Cooper, Alice Holmes. Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements since 1945. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 85.
  21. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  22. Nils Schnelle (2007). Die WASG – Von der Gründung bis zur geplanten Fusion mit der Linkspartei. Munich.
  23. "Schroeder wins second term". Retrieved 17 October 2018.

Further reading

  • Orlow, Dietrich. Common Destiny: A Comparative History of the Dutch, French, and German Social Democratic Parties, 1945–1969 (2000) online.
  • Carl E. Schorske, German Social Democracy, 1905–1917: The Development of the Great Schism (Harvard University Press, 1955).
  • Vernon L. Lidtke, The Outlawed Party: Social Democracy in Germany, 1878–1890 (Princeton University Press, 1966).
  • Berlau, Abraham. German Social Democratic Party, 1914–1921 (Columbia University Press, 1949).
  • Maxwell, John Allen. "Social Democracy in a Divided Germany: Kurt Schumacher and the German Question, 1945-1952." Ph.D dissertation, West Virginia University, Department of History, Morgantown, West Virginia, 1969.
  • McAdams, A. James. "Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification." Princeton University Press, 1992 and 1993.
  • Erich Matthias, The Downfall of the Old Social Democratic Party in 1933 pages 51–105 from Republic to Reich The Making of the Nazi Revolution Ten Essays edited by Hajo Holborn, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972).
  • Eric D. Weitz, Creating German Communism, 1890-1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
  • David Priestand, Red Flag: A History of Communism," New York: Grove Press, 2009.
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