Orion (spacecraft)

Interior of the Orion mock-up in October 2014.

Testing of Orion's parachute system.

The Orion crew module (CM) is a reusable transportation capsule that provides a habitat for the crew, provides storage for consumables and research instruments, and contains the docking port for crew transfers.[10][11][12] The crew module is the only part of the spacecraft that returns to Earth after each mission and is a 57.5° truncated cone shape with a blunt spherical aft end, 5.02 meters (16 ft 6 in) in diameter and 3.3 meters (10 ft 10 in) in length,[13] with a mass of about 8.5 metric tons (19,000 lb). It was manufactured by the Lockheed Martin Corporation at Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans.[14] It will have 50% more volume than the Apollo capsule and will carry four to six astronauts.[15] After extensive study, NASA has selected the Avcoat ablator system for the Orion crew module. Avcoat, which is composed of silica fibers with a resin in a honeycomb made of fiberglass and phenolic resin, was formerly used on the Apollo missions and on the Space Shuttle orbiter for early flights.[16]

Orion's CM will use advanced technologies, including:

• Glass cockpit digital control systems derived from those of the Boeing 787.[17]
• An "autodock" feature, like those of Progress, the Automated Transfer Vehicle, and Dragon 2, with provision for the flight crew to take over in an emergency. Prior US spacecraft have all been docked by the crew.
• Improved waste-management facilities, with a miniature camping-style toilet and the unisex "relief tube" used on the Space Shuttle.
• A nitrogen/oxygen (N
  ₂/O
  ₂) mixed atmosphere at either sea level (101.3 kPa or 14.69 psi) or reduced (55.2 to 70.3 kPa or 8.01 to 10.20 psi) pressure.
• Far more advanced computers than on prior crew vehicles.

The CM will be built of aluminium-lithium alloy. The reusable recovery parachutes will be based on the parachutes used on both the Apollo spacecraft and the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, and will be constructed of Nomex cloth. Water landings will be the exclusive means of recovery for the Orion CM.[18][19]

To allow Orion to mate with other vehicles, it will be equipped with the NASA Docking System. The spacecraft will employ a Launch Escape System (LES) along with a "Boost Protective Cover" (made of fiberglass), to protect the Orion CM from aerodynamic and impact stresses during the first ​2 ¹⁄₂ minutes of ascent. Its designers claim that the MPCV is designed to be 10 times safer during ascent and reentry than the Space Shuttle.[20] The CM is designed to be refurbished and reused. In addition, all of Orion's component parts have been designed to be as modular as possible, so that between the craft's first test flight in 2014 and its projected Mars voyage in the 2030s, the spacecraft can be upgraded as new technologies become available.[10]

As of 2019, the Spacecraft Atmospheric Monitor is planned to be used in the Orion CM.[21]

Artist's concept of an Orion spacecraft including the European Service Module with Interim Cryogenic Upper Stage attached at the back

In May 2011 the ESA director general announced a possible collaboration with NASA to work on a successor to the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV).[22] On June 21, 2012, Airbus Defence and Space announced that they had been awarded two separate studies, each worth €6.5 million, to evaluate the possibilities of using technology and experience gained from ATV and Columbus related work for future missions. The first looked into the possible construction of a service module which would be used in tandem with the Orion CM.[23] The second examined the possible production of a versatile multi purpose orbital vehicle.[24]

On November 21, 2012, the ESA decided to develop an ATV-derived service module for Orion.[25] The service module is being manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space in Bremen, Germany.[26] NASA announced on January 16, 2013, that the ESA service module will first fly on Artemis 1, the debut launch of the Space Launch System.[27]

Testing of the European service module began in February 2016, at the Space Power Facility.[28]

On February 16, 2017, a €200m contract was signed between Airbus and the European Space Agency for the production of a second European service module for use on the first crewed Orion flight, Artemis 2.[29]

On 26 October 2018 the first unit for Artemis 1 was assembled in full at Airbus Defence and Space's factory in Bremen.[30]

In the event of an emergency on the launch pad or during ascent, a Launch Abort System (LAS) will separate the crew module from the launch vehicle using three solid rocket motors: an abort motor (AM),[31] an attitude control motor (ACM), and a jettison motor (JM). The AM provides the thrust needed to accelerate the capsule, while the ACM is used to point the AM[32] and the jettison motor separates the LAS from the crew capsule.[33] On July 10, 2007, Orbital Sciences, the prime contractor for the LAS, awarded Alliant Techsystems (ATK) a $62.5 million sub-contract to "design, develop, produce, test and deliver the launch abort motor," which uses a "reverse flow" design.[34] On July 9, 2008, NASA announced that ATK had completed construction of a vertical test stand at a facility in Promontory, Utah to test launch abort motors for the Orion spacecraft.[35] Another long-time space motor contractor, Aerojet, was awarded the jettison motor design and development contract for the LAS. As of September 2008, Aerojet has, along with team members Orbital Sciences, Lockheed Martin and NASA, successfully demonstrated two full-scale test firings of the jettison motor. This motor is used on every flight, as it pulls the LAS tower away from the vehicle after both a successful launch and a launch abort.[36]

For fiscal years 2006 through 2018, the Orion expended funding totaling $15,983 million in nominal dollars. This is equivalent to $18,138 million adjusting to 2018 dollars using the NASA New Start Inflation Indices.[45]

Excluded from the prior Orion costs are:

1. Costs "for production, operations, or sustainment of additional crew capsules, despite plans to use and possibly enhance this capsule after 2021"[59]
2. Costs of the first service module and spare parts, which are provided by ESA[60] for the test flight of Orion in 2020 (about US$1 billion)[61]
3. Costs to assemble, integrate, prepare and launch the Orion and its launcher (funded under the NASA Ground Operations Project,[62] currently about $400M[63] per year)
4. Costs of the launcher, the SLS, for the Orion spacecraft

For 2019 to 2023, NASA estimated[64] yearly budgets for Orion range from $1.1 to $1.2 billion. In late 2015, the Orion program was assessed at a 70 % confidence level for its first crewed flight by 2023.[65][66][67]

There are no NASA estimates for the Orion program recurring yearly costs once operational, for a certain flight rate per year, or for the resulting average costs per flight. In 2016, the NASA manager of exploration systems development said that Orion, SLS, and supporting ground systems should cost "US$2 billion or less" annually.[68] NASA will not provide the cost per flight of Orion and SLS, with associate administrator William H. Gerstenmaier stating "costs must be derived from the data and are not directly available. This was done by design to lower NASA's expenditures" in 2017.[69]

NASA and DoD personnel familiarize themselves with a Navy-built, 18,000-pound (8,200 kg) Orion mock-up in a test pool at the Naval Surface Warfare Center's Carderock Division in Potomac, Md.

The Orion Drop Test Article during a test on February 29, 2012

Test article being airlifted to the Pad Abort-1 flight test.

• Space Vehicle Mockup Facility (SVMF) in Johnson Space Center, includes a full-scale Orion capsule mock-up for astronaut training.[70]
• Ares-I-X The Orion Mass Simulator was used on the Ares I-X flight test.
• Pad Abort 1 An Orion boilerplate was used for the Pad Abort 1 flight test, the LAS was fully functional, the boilerplate was recovered
• Ascent Abort-2 An Orion boilerplate was used for the Ascent Abort 2 flight test, the LAS was fully functional, the boilerplate was discarded
• The Boilerplate Test Article (BTA) underwent splashdown testing at the Langley Research Center. This same test article has been modified to support Orion Recovery Testing in stationary and underway recovery tests.[71] The BTA contains over 150 sensors to gather data on its test drops.[72] Testing of the 18,000-pound (8,200 kg) mockup ran from July 2011 to January 6, 2012.[73]
• The Ground Test Article (GTA) stack, located at Lockheed Martin in Denver, is undergoing vibration testing.[74] It is made up by the Orion Ground Test Vehicle (GTV) combined with its Launch Abort System (LAS). Further testing will see the addition of service module simulator panels and Thermal Protection System (TPS) to the GTA stack.[75]
• The Drop Test Article (DTA), also known as the Drop Test Vehicle (DTV) underwent test drops at the US Army's Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona from an altitude of 25,000 feet (7,600 m).[75] Testing began in 2007. Drogue chutes deploy around 20,000 and 15,000 feet (6,100 and 4,600 m). Testing of the staged parachutes includes the partial opening and complete failure of one of the three main parachutes. With only two chutes deployed the DTA lands at 33 feet per second (10 m/s), the maximum touchdown speed for Orion's design.[76] The drop test program has had several failures in 2007, 2008, and 2010,[77] resulting in new DTV being constructed. The landing parachute set is known as the Capsule Parachute Assembly System (CPAS).[78] With all parachutes functional, a landing speed of 17 mph (27 km/h) was achieved.[79] A third test vehicle, the PCDTV3, was successfully tested in a drop on April 17, 2012.[80]

Orion CEV design as of 2009.

The idea for a Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) was announced on January 14, 2004, as part of the Vision for Space Exploration after the Space Shuttle Columbia accident.[81] The CEV effectively replaced the conceptual Orbital Space Plane (OSP), a proposed replacement for the Space Shuttle. A design competition was held, and the winner was the proposal from a consortium led by Lockheed Martin. It was later named "Orion" after the stellar constellation and mythical hunter of the same name,[82] and became part of the Constellation program under NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe.

Constellation proposed using the Orion CEV in both crew and cargo variants to support the International Space Station and as a crew vehicle for a return to the Moon. The crew/command module was originally intended to land on solid ground on the US west coast using airbags but later changed to ocean splashdown, while a service module was included for life support and propulsion.[18] With a diameter of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in) as opposed to 3.9 meters (12 ft 10 in), the Orion CEV would have provided 2.5 times greater volume than the Apollo CM.[83] The service module was originally planned to use liquid methane (LCH₄) as its fuel, but switched to hypergolic propellants due to the infancy of oxygen/methane-powered rocket technologies and the goal of launching the Orion CEV by 2012.[84][85][86]

The Orion CEV was to be launched on the Ares I rocket to low Earth orbit, where it would rendezvous with the Altair lunar lander launched on a heavy-lift Ares V launch vehicle for lunar missions.

NASA performed environmental testing of Orion from 2007 to 2011 at the Glenn Research Center Plum Brook Station in Sandusky, Ohio. The Center's Space Power Facility is the world's largest thermal vacuum chamber.[87]

ATK Aerospace successfully completed the first Orion Launch Abort System (LAS) test on November 20, 2008. The LAS motor could provide 500,000 lbf (2,200 kN) of thrust in case an emergency situation should arise on the launch pad or during the first 300,000 feet (91 km) of the rocket's climb to orbit.[88]

On March 2, 2009, a full size, full weight command module mockup (pathfinder) began its journey from the Langley Research Center to the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, for at-gantry launch vehicle assembly training and for LAS testing.[89] On May 10, 2010, NASA successfully executed the LAS PAD-Abort-1 test at White Sands New Mexico, launching a boilerplate (mock-up) Orion capsule to an altitude of approximately 6,000 feet (1,800 m). The test used three solid-fuel rocket motors – a main thrust motor, an attitude control motor and the jettison motor.[90]

In 2009 during the Constellation phase of the program, the Post-landing Orion Recovery Test (PORT) was designed to determine and evaluate methods of crew rescue and what kind of motions the astronaut crew could expect after landing, including conditions outside the capsule for the recovery team. The evaluation process supported NASA's design of landing recovery operations including equipment, ship and crew needs.

The PORT Test used a full-scale boilerplate (mock-up) of NASA's Orion crew module and was tested in water under simulated and real weather conditions. Tests began March 23, 2009, with a Navy-built, 18,000-pound (8,200 kg) boilerplate in a test pool. Full sea testing ran April 6–30, 2009, at various locations off the coast of NASA's Kennedy Space Center with media coverage.[91]

Artist's conception of Orion (as then-designed) in lunar orbit.

On May 7, 2009, the Obama administration enlisted the Augustine Commission to perform a full independent review of the ongoing NASA space exploration program. The commission found the then current Constellation Program to be woefully under-budgeted with significant cost overruns, behind schedule by four years or more in several essential components, and unlikely to be capable of meeting any of its scheduled goals.[92][93] As a consequence, the commission recommended a significant re-allocation of goals and resources. As one of the many outcomes based on these recommendations, on October 11, 2010, the Constellation program was canceled, ending development of the Altair, Ares I, and Ares V. The Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle survived the cancellation and was transferred to be launched on the Space Launch System.[94]

The Orion development program was restructured from three different versions of the Orion capsule, each for a different task,[96] to the development of the MPCV as a single version capable of performing multiple tasks.[5] On December 5, 2014, a developmental Orion spacecraft was successfully launched into space and retrieved at sea after splashdown on the Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1).[97][98]

Before EFT-1 in December 2014 several preparatory vehicle recovery tests were performed, which continued the "crawl, walk, run" approach established by PORT. The "crawl" phase was performed August 12–16, 2013, with the Stationary Recovery Test (SRT). The Stationary Recovery Test demonstrated the recovery hardware and techniques that were to be employed for the recovery of the Orion crew module in the protected waters of Naval Station Norfolk utilizing the LPD-17 type USS Arlington as the recovery ship.[99]

The "walk" and "run" phases were performed with the Underway Recovery Test (URT). Also utilizing a LPD 17 class ship, the URT were performed in more realistic sea conditions off the coast of California in early 2014 to prepare the US Navy / NASA team for recovering the Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1) Orion crew module. The URT tests completed the pre-launch test phase of the Orion recovery system.

EFT-1

Orion Lite is an unofficial name used in the media for a lightweight crew capsule proposed by Bigelow Aerospace in collaboration with Lockheed Martin. It was to be based on the Orion spacecraft that Lockheed Martin was developing for NASA. It would be a lighter, less capable and cheaper version of the full Orion.

The intention of designing Orion Lite would be to provide a stripped-down version of the Orion that would be available for missions to the International Space Station earlier than the more capable Orion, which is designed for longer duration missions to the Moon and Mars.[100]

Bigelow began working with Lockheed Martin in 2004. A few years later Bigelow signed a million-dollar contract to develop "an Orion mockup, an Orion Lite."[101]

The proposed collaboration between Bigelow and Lockheed Martin on the Orion Lite spacecraft has ended. Bigelow began work with Boeing on a similar capsule, the CST-100, which has no Orion heritage. The CST-100 was selected under NASA's Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program to transport crew to the ISS.

Orion Lite's primary mission would be to transport crew to the International Space Station, or to private space stations such as the planned B330 from Bigelow Aerospace. While Orion Lite would have the same exterior dimensions as the Orion, there would be no need for the deep space infrastructure present in the Orion configuration. As such, the Orion Lite would be able to support larger crews of around 7 people as the result of greater habitable interior volume and the reduced weight of equipment needed to support an exclusively low-Earth-orbit configuration.[102]

In order to reduce the weight of Orion Lite, the more durable heat shield of the Orion would be replaced with a lighter weight heat shield designed to support the lower temperatures of Earth atmospheric re-entry from low Earth orbit. Additionally, the current proposal calls for a mid-air retrieval, wherein another aircraft captures the descending Orion Lite module. To date, such a retrieval method has not been employed for manned spacecraft, although it has been used with satellites.[103]

Pad Abort-1 (PA-1) was a flight test of the Orion Launch Abort System (LAS).

At 7:05 AM EST on December 5, 2014, the Orion capsule was launched atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket for its first test flight, and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean about 4.5 hours later. Although it was not crewed, the two-orbit flight was NASA's first launch of a human-rated vehicle since the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet in 2011. Orion reached an altitude of 3,600 mi (5,800 km) and speeds of up to 20,000 mph (8,900 m/s) on a flight that tested Orion's heat shield, parachutes, jettisoning components, and on-board computers.[104] Orion was recovered by USS Anchorage and brought to San Diego, California, for its return to Kennedy Space Center in Florida.[105]

Ascent Abort-2 (AA-2) was a test of the Launch Abort System (LAS) of NASA's Orion spacecraft.

The test followed Orion's Pad Abort-1 test in 2010, and Exploration Flight Test-1 in 2014 in which the capsule first flew in space. It precedes an uncrewed flight of Orion around the Moon as the Artemis 1 mission, and paves the way for human use of Orion in subsequent missions of the Artemis program.

The test flight, which had been subject to several delays during Orion development, took place on July 2, 2019 at 07:00 local time (11:00 UTC). The flight was successful, and the launch abort system performed as designed.[106][107]

Orion development test flights

Mission	Patch	Launch	Crew	Launch vehicle	Outcome	Duration
Pad Abort-1		6 May 2010 White Sands LC-32E	N/A	Orion Launch Abort System (LAS)	Success	95 seconds
Exploration Flight Test 1		5 December 2014, 12:05 UTC Cape Canaveral SLC-37	N/A	Delta IV Heavy (Delta 369)	Success	4 hours 24 minutes
Ascent Abort-2		2 July 2019, 11:00 UTC Cape Canaveral SLC-46	N/A	Orion Abort Test Booster	Success	3 minutes 13 seconds

Artist's concept of an astronaut on an EVA taking samples from a captured asteroid; Orion in the background.

The Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM), also known as the Asteroid Retrieval and Utilization (ARU) mission and the Asteroid Initiative, was a space mission proposed by NASA in 2013. The Asteroid Retrieval Robotic Mission (ARRM) spacecraft would rendezvous with a large near-Earth asteroid and use robotic arms with anchoring grippers to retrieve a 4-meter boulder from the asteroid. A secondary objective was to develop the required technology to bring a small near-Earth asteroid into lunar orbit – "the asteroid was a bonus." There, it could be analyzed by the crew of the Orion EM-5 or EM-6 ARCM mission in 2026.[108]

Orion approcaching the Gateway during Artemis 3

As of 2019, all Orion missions will be launched on the Space Launch System from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B. All full scale flights will be into deep space with the first uncrewed flight of Artemis 1 entering a lunar orbit and the first crewed flight Artemis 2 going on a lunar flyby. Artemis 1 is planned to launch in 2021; however, in July 2016 a Government Accountability Office report cast doubt on the planned initial launch date and suggested that an early date may be counterproductive to the program.[109]

List of Artemis program missions

Mission	Patch	Launch date	Crew	Launch vehicle	Duration
Artemis 1		TBD[110]	N/A	SLS Block 1 Crew	~25d
Artemis 2		Q4 2022	TBA	SLS Block 1 Crew	~10d
Artemis 3		2024	TBA	SLS Block 1 Crew	~30d

A proposal curated by William H. Gerstenmaier before his 10 July 2019 reassignment[111] suggests four launches the crewed Orion spacecraft and logistical modules aboard the SLS Block 1B to the Gateway between 2024 and 2028.[112][113] The crewed Artemis 4 through 7 would launch yearly between 2025 and 2028,[114] testing in situ resource utilization and nuclear power on the lunar surface with a partially reusable lander. Artemis 7 would deliver in 2028 a crew of four astronauts to a surface lunar outpost known as the Lunar Surface Asset.[114] The Lunar Surface Asset would be launched by an undetermined launcher[114] and would be used for extended crewed lunar surface missions.[114][115][116] .[117][114]

Artist rendering of the Orion CEV docked to a proposed Mars Transfer Vehicle

The Orion capsule is designed to support future missions to send astronauts to Mars, probably to take place in the 2030s. Since the Orion capsule provides only about 2.25 m³ (79 cu ft) of living space per crew member,[118] the use of an additional Deep Space Habitat module featuring propulsion will be needed for long duration missions. The complete spacecraft stack is known as the Deep Space Transport.[119] The habitat module will provide additional space and supplies, as well as facilitate spacecraft maintenance, mission communications, exercise, training, and personal recreation.[120] Some concepts for DSH modules would provide approximately 70.0 m³ (2,472 cu ft) of living space per crew member,[120] though the DSH module is in its early conceptual stage. DSH sizes and configurations may vary slightly, depending on crew and mission needs.[121] The mission may launch in the mid-2030s or late-2030s.[122]