Ice dance

Jackson Haines, the "father of figure skating"

Ice dance, like pairs skating, has its roots in the "combined skating" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and in the recreational social skating between couples and friends, who would skate waltzes, marches, and other social dances together.[3] According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the origins of ice dance come from late 19th-century attempts by the Viennese and British to translate the waltz and other ballroom dances to the ice and to create ballroom-style performances on ice skates.[4] However, figure skating historian James Hines argues that ice dance had its beginnings in hand-in-hand skating, a short-lived but popular discipline of figure skating in England in the 1890s; many of the positions used in modern ice dance can be traced back to hand-in-hand skating.[5][note 2] The first steps in ice dance were similar to those used in ballroom dancing, so unlike modern ice dance, skaters tended to keep both feet on the ice most of the time, without the "long and flowing edges associated with graceful figure skating".[7]

In the late 1800s, American Jackson Haines, known as "the Father of Figure Skating",[2] brought his style of skating to Europe, and taught people in Vienna how to dance on the ice, both singly and with partners.[2] Capitalizing on the popularity of the waltz in Vienna, Haines introduced the American waltz, a simple four-step sequence, each step lasting one beat of music, repeated as the partners moved in a circular pattern.[2] By the 1880s, it and the Jackson Haines waltz, a variation of the American waltz, were among the most popular ice dances.[7] Other popular ice dance steps included the mazurka, a version of the Jackson Haines waltz developed in Sweden, and the three-step waltz, which was created in Paris in 1894 and which James Hines considers "the direct predecessor of ice dancing in the modern sense".[7]

In the 1890s in Paris a three-step waltz was created, known as the English waltz; ice dance historian Cheryl Elton describes it as "the direct predecessor of modern ice dancing, featuring the speed and flowing edges that we see today"[8]. The English waltz became the standard for waltz skating competitions and was at first popular with inexperienced skaters, although skilled skaters made it more challenging by introducing more difficult steps such as mohawks and 3 turns.[9][8] Other early ice dances included the European waltz, before the turn of the 20th century, the ten-step, and the fourteen-step, which are all still used in modern ice dance competitions.[10] According to Hines, the ten-step is the basis of the fourteen-step.[11] The inventor of the European waltz is unknown; the ten-step was created by Austrian champion Max Bohatsch in Vienna.[11] Also in the 1890s, combined and hand-in-hand skating moved skating away from basic figures to the continuous movement of ice dancers around an ice rink. Hines insists that the popularity of skating waltzes, which depended upon the speed and flow across the ice of couples in dance positions and not just on holding hands with a partner, ended the popularity of hand-in-hand skating.[6] By the end of the 19th century, waltzing competitions became popular throughout the world.[9] According to Hines, Vienna was "the dancing capital of Europe, both on and off skates" in the 19th century.[11] The killian, first skated in 1909 by Austrian Karl Schreiter, was the last ice dance invented before World War I still being done as of the 21st century.[12]

Eva Romanová and Pavel Roman in 1965

By the early 1900s, ice dance was popular around the world and was primarily a recreational sport, although during the 1920s, local clubs in Britain and the U.S. conducted informal dance contests in the ten-step, the fourteen-step, and the killian, which were the only three dances used in competition until the 1930s.[4][13] Recreational skating became more popular during the 1930s in England, and new and more difficult set-pattern dances, which later were used in compulsory dances during competitions, were developed.[14] According to Hines, the development of new ice dances was necessary to expand upon the three dances already developed; three British teams in the 1930s—Erik van der Wyden and Eva Keats, Reginald Wilkie and Daphne B. Wallis, and Robert Dench and Rosemarie Stewart—created one-fourth of the dances used in International Skating Union (ISU) competitions by 2006. In 1933, the Westminster Skating Club conducted a competition encouraging the creation of new dances.[15] Beginning in the mid-1930s, national organizations began to introduce skating proficiency tests in set-pattern dances, improve the judging of dance tests, and oversee competitions. The first national competitions occurred in England in 1934, Canada in 1935, the U.S. in 1936, and Austria in 1937. These competitions included one or more compulsory dances, the original dance, and the free dance.[16][17][18] By the late 1930s, ice dancers swelled memberships in skating clubs throughout the world, and in Hines' words "became the backbone of skating clubs".[13]

The ISU began to develop rules, standards, and international tests for ice dance in the 1950s.[19] The first international ice dance competition occurred as a special event during the 1950 World Figure Skating Championships in London; Lois Waring and Michael McGean of the U.S. won the event, much to the embarrassment of the British, who considered themselves the best ice dancers in the world.[20] A second event was planned the following year, at the 1951 World Championships in Milan; Jean Westwood and Lawrence Demmy of Great Britain came in first place.[21] Ice dance, with the CD and FD segments, was formally added to the World Championships in 1952.[19] Westwood and Demmy won that year, and went on to dominate ice dance, winning the next four World Championships as well.[18][21] British teams dominated ice dance throughout the 1950s and the 1960s, winning 12 out of the first 16 championships.[16] Eva Romanova and Pavel Roman of Czechoslovakia were the first non-British ice dancers to win a world title, in 1962.[22]

Ice dance became an Olympic sport in 1976; Lyudmila Pakhomova and Alexandr Gorshkov from the Soviet Union were the first gold medalists.[19][23][24] The Soviets dominated ice dance during most of the 1970s, as they did in pairs skating. They won every Worlds and Olympic title between 1970 and 1978, and won medals at every competition between 1976 and 1982.[25] In 1984, British dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, who Hines calls "the greatest ice dancers in the history of the sport",[26] briefly interrupted Soviet domination of ice dance by "famously winning the Olympic gold medal"[16] at the Olympic Games in Sarajevo, with their free dance to Ravel's Boléro,[16][27] which has been called "probably the most well known single program in the history of ice dance".[28] Hines asserts that Torvill and Dean, with their innovative choreography, dramatically altered "established concepts of ice dancing".[29]

Torvill and Dean performing in 2011

During the 1970s, there was a movement in ice dance away from its ballroom roots to a more theatrical style. The top Soviet teams were the first to emphasize the dramatic aspects of ice dance, as well as the first to choreograph their programs around a central theme. They also incorporated elements of ballet and theatrical performances into their programs.[28] Dance teams from all over the world were influenced by ballet techniques, especially "the classic ballet pas de deux of the high-art instance of a man and woman dancing together".[28] They began to move ice dance away from its social dance origins, towards art dance, by performing as predictable characters, choreographing into their routines body positions that were no longer rooted in traditional ballroom holds, and using music with less predictable rhythms.[28][24]

The ISU pushed back during the 1980s and 1990s by tightening rules and definitions of ice dance to emphasize its connection to ballroom dancing, especially in the free dance. The restrictions introduced during this period were designed to emphasize skating skills rather than the theatrical and dramatic aspects of ice dance.[30][31] Kestnbaum argues that there was a conflict in the ice dance community between social dance and theatrical dance and that at the time, the historic and traditional cultural school of ice dance prevailed. Kestnbaum argues that there was a conflict in the ice dance community between the traditional social dance school, represented by the British, the Canadians, and the Americans, and the theatrical dance school, represented by the Russians.[32] Initially the historic and traditional cultural school of ice dance prevailed, with the ISU introducing restrictions during the 1980s and 1990s, but in 1998 the ISU reduced penalties for violations and relaxed rules on technical content, in what Hines describes as a "major step forward"[33] in recognizing the move towards more theatrical skating in ice dance.

At the 1998 Olympics, while ice dance was struggling to retain its integrity and legitimacy as a sport, there were allegations of "bloc voting"[34] that favored European dance teams. There were even calls to suspend the sport for a year to deal with the dispute, which seemed to impact ice dance teams from North America the most. A series of judging scandals in the late 1990s and early 2000s, affecting most figure skating disciplines, culminated in a controversy at the 2002 Olympics.[35]

Canadian ice dancers Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir, the most decorated figure skaters in Olympic history.

The European dominance of ice dance was interrupted at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, when Canadian ice dance team Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir won the gold medal, marking the first time a team from North America had won a gold medal at the Olympics, and Americans Meryl Davis and Charlie White won the silver. Russians Oksana Domnina and Maxim Shabalin won bronze, but it was the first time Europeans had not won a gold medal in the history of ice dance at the Olympics.[36] The U.S. then began to dominate international competitions in ice dance; at the 2014 Olympics in Sochi, Davis and White won the Olympic gold medal.[37] In 2018, at the Olympics in PyeongChang, Virtue and Moir became the most decorated figure skaters in Olympic history after winning the gold medal there.[38]

According to Caroline Silby, a consultant with U.S. Figure Skating, ice dance teams and pair skaters have the added challenge of strengthening partnerships and ensuring that teams stay together for several years; unresolved conflict between partners can often cause the early break-up of a team. Silby further asserts that the early demise or break-up of a team is often caused by consistent and unresolved conflict between partners.[39] Both ice dancers and pairs face challenges that make conflict resolution and communication difficult: fewer available boys for girls to partner with; different priorities regarding commitment and scheduling; differences in partners' ages and developmental stages; differences in family situations; the common necessity of one or both partners moving to train at a new facility; and different skill levels when the partnership is formed.[40] Silby estimates that the lack of effective communication within dance and pairs teams is associated with a six-fold increase in the risk of ending their partnerships. Teams with strong skills in communication and conflict resolution, however, tend to produce more successful medalists at national championship events.[41]

Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron, 2018

The RD is the first segment performed in all junior and senior ice dance competitions.[44] It combines many of the elements of the CD and the OD, retaining the characteristic set patterns of the CD, in which each dance team must perform the same two patterns of a set "pattern dance", providing "an essential comparison of the dancers' technical skills".[42] The ice dance team is judged on how well the pattern dance is integrated into the entire RD routine.[45] The RD must also include a short six-second lift, a set of twizzles, and a step sequence.[42][46]

The rhythms and themes of the RD are determined by the ISU prior to the start of each new season.[42][46][note 3] The RD should be "developed through skating skill and quality", instead of through "non-skating actions such as sliding on one knee"[48] or through the use of toe steps (which should only be used reflect the music's nuances and underlining rhythm and the dance's character).[48] The RD must have a duration of 2 minutes and 50 seconds.[49]

The first RD in international competitions was performed by U.S. junior ice dancers Anastasia Cannuscio and Colin McManus, at the 2010 Junior Grand Prix Courchevel.[50] As of 2019, at the NHK Trophy, French ice dancers Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron hold the five highest RD scores, including the highest RD score of 90.03 points.[51]

The free dance takes place after the RD in all junior and senior ice dance competitions.[52] The "2019 U.S. Figure Skating Rulebook" defines it as "the skating by the couple of a creative dance program blending dance steps and movements expressing the character/rhythm(s) of the dance music chosen by the couple".[53] The program must be skated on the entire surface of the ice and be well-balanced. It must contain required combinations of elements (spins, lifts, steps, and movements), and choreography that express both the characters of the competitors and the music chosen by them.[53] It must also display the skaters' "excellent skating technique"[53] and creativity in expression, concept, and arrangement.[45] The free dance's choreography must reflect the music's accents, nuances, and dance character, and the ice dancers must not skate only to the melody alone, but also primarily in time to the music's rhythmic beat.[53] For senior ice dancers, the free dance must have a duration of 4 minutes; for juniors, 3.5 minutes.[45]

As of 2019, at the NHK Trophy, Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron hold the five highest free dances scores, including the highest free dance score of 136.58 points.[54][note 4]

Federica Faiella and Massimo Scali perform their compulsory dance at the 2009 Cup of China.

Before 2010, the CD was the first segment performed in ice dance competitions. The teams performed the same pattern around two circuits of the rink, one team after another, using the same step sequences and the same standardized tempo chosen by the ISU before the beginning of each season.[56][57] The CD has been compared with compulsory figures; competitors were "judged for their mastery of fundamental elements".[56]

Many of the first CDs were developed during the 1930s by teams from Great Britain, which dominated ice dance internationally throughout the 1950s, during the period before it became an Olympic sport in 1972.[16] Early in ice dance history, the CD contributed 60% of the total score.[58]

The 2010 World Championships was the last event to include a CD (the Golden Waltz); Federica Faiella and Massimo Scali from Italy were the last ice dance team to perform a CD in competition.[59]

Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir perform a Flamenco folk dance for their original dance at the 2010 World Championships.

The OD was first added to ice dance competitions in 1967. It was called the "original set pattern dance"[60] until 1990, when it became known simply as the "original dance". The OD remained the second competition segment (sandwiched between the CD and the free dance) until the end of the 2009–2010 season.[58] Ice dancers were able to create their own routines, but they had to use a set rhythm and type of music which, like the compulsory dances, changed every season and was selected by the ISU in advance. The timing and interpretation of the rhythm were considered to be the most important aspects of the routine, and were worth the highest proportion of the OD score. The routine had a two-minute time limit and the OD accounted for 30% of the overall competition score.[61][62]

Canadian ice dancers Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir hold the highest OD score of 70.27 points, achieved at the 2010 World Championships.[63]

According to ice dancer and commentator Tanith White, unlike in other disciplines wherein skaters can make up for their falls in other elements, falls in ice dance usually mean that the team will not win. White argues that falls are rare in ice dance, and since falls constitute interruptions, they tend to have large deductions because the mood of their program's theme is broken.[73] The ISU defines a fall as the "loss of control by a Skater with the result that the majority of his/her own body weight is on the ice supported by any other part of the body other than the blades; e.g. hand(s), knee(s), back, buttock(s) or any part of the arm".[74] The ISU defines an interruption as "the period of time starting immediately when the Competitor stops performing the program or is ordered to do so by the Referee, whichever is earlier, and ending when the Competitor resumes the performance".[75] Injuries to the lower body (the knee, ankle, and back) are the most common for both ice dancers and single skaters. A study conducted during a U.S. national competition including 58 ice dancers recorded an average of 0.97 injuries per athlete.[76]

In ice dance, teams can lose one point for every fall by one partner, and two points if both partners fall. If there is an interruption while performing their program, ice dancers can lose one point if it lasts more than 10 seconds but not over 20 seconds. They can lose two points if the interruption lasts 20 seconds but not over 30 seconds, and three points if it lasts 30 seconds but not more than 40 seconds. They can lose five points if the interruption lasts three or more minutes.[77]

Judges penalize ice dancers one point up to every five seconds for ending their pattern dances too early or too late. Dancers can also be penalized one point for up to every five seconds "in excess of [the] permitted time after the last prescribed step" (their final movement and/or pose) in their pattern dances.[78] If they start their programs between one and 30 seconds late, they can lose one point.[77] Restrictions for finishing the rhythm and free dance are similar to the requirements of the other disciplines in figure skating. They can complete these programs within plus or minus 10 seconds of the required times; if they cannot, judges can deduct points for finishing their program up to five seconds too early or too late. If they begin skating any element after their required time (plus the required 10 seconds they have to begin), they earn no points for those elements. If the program's duration is "thirty (30) seconds or more under the required time range, no marks will be awarded".[79]

If a team performs a dance lift that exceeds the permitted duration, judges can deduct one point.[80] White argues that deductions in ice dance, in the absence of a fall or interruption, are most often due to "extended lifts",[73] or lifts that last too long.

The ISU defines interpretation of the music and timing in ice dance as "the personal, creative, and genuine translation of the rhythm, character and content of music to movement on ice".[81] Judges take the following things into account when scoring ice dances: timing (steps and movement in time to the music); the expression of the character and/or feeling and rhythm of the music, when they can be identified clearly; the use of finesse;[note 5] the relationship between the dancers' ability to reflect the rhythm and character of the music; if the dancers skate primarily to the rhythmic beat during their rhythm dance; and if they can keep a "good balance" between skating to the melody and beat during their free dance.[81]

Violations against the music requirements have a two-point deduction, and violations against the dance tempo requirements have a one-point deduction.[80] Judges can deduct one point per program if the ice dancers break choreography restrictions.[77] The ISU has allowed vocals in the music used in ice dance since the 1997–1998 season,[82] most likely because of the difficulty in finding suitable music without words for certain genres.[83][note 6]

As for the other disciplines of figure skating, the clothing worn by ice dancers at ISU Championships, the Olympics, and international competitions must be "modest, dignified and appropriate for athletic competition—not garish or theatrical in design".[84] Rules about clothing tend to be more strict in ice dance; Juliet Newcomer from U.S. Figure Skating has speculated limits in the kind of costumes ice dancers chose were pushed farther during the 1990s and early 2000s than in the other disciplines, resulting in stricter rules.[85] Clothing can, however, reflect the character of ice dancers' chosen music. Their costumes must not "give the effect of excessive nudity inappropriate for the discipline".[84]

All men must wear trousers. Female ice dancers must wear skirts. Accessories and props on the costumes of both dancers are not allowed. The decorations on costumes must be "non-detachable";[84] judges can deduct one point per program if part of the competitors' costumes or decorations fall on the ice.[84] If there is a costume or prop violation, the judges can deduct one point per program. If competitors do not adhere to these guidelines, the judges can deduct points from their total score, if most of the panel, including the referee, thinks a team's outfit is inappropriate or non-compliant.[84][85] However, costume deductions are rare. According to Newcomer, by the time skaters get to a national or world championship, they have received enough feedback about their costumes and are no longer willing to risk losing points.[85]