Chili pepper

The chili pepper (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli[4]), from Nahuatl chīlli (Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃiːlːi] (listen)), is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum which are members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae.[5] Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add heat to dishes. The substances giving chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids.

Chili
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Capsicum
L.
Species:
C. annuum
Binomial name
Capsicum annuum
Varieties and Groups
Synonyms[3]
Young chili plants
Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)

Chili peppers originated in Mexico.[6] After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both food and traditional medicine.

Chilli with Kakronda, eaten in Uttar Pradesh

Cultivars grown in North America and Europe are believed to all derive from Capsicum annuum, and have white, yellow, red or purple to black fruits. In 2016, world production of raw green chili peppers was 34.5 million tonnes, with China producing half of the world total.[7]

History

Origins
Pottery that tested positive for Capsicum sp. residues excavated at Chiapa de Corzo in southern Mexico dated from Middle to Late Preclassic periods (400 BCE to 300 CE)

Capsicum fruits have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC, and are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas,[8] as origins of cultivating chili peppers are traced to northeastern Mexico some 6,000 years ago.[9][10] They were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America.[8]

Peru is considered the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.[11] Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.[11]

Distribution to Europe

When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum, calling them "peppers" because they, like black pepper of the genus Piper known in Europe, have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foods.[12]

Red Cubanelle chili peppers

Distribution to Asia

The spread of chili peppers to Asia occurred through its introduction by Portuguese traders, who – aware of its trade value and resemblance to the spiciness of black pepper – promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes.[8][12][13] It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of the 15th century.[14] In 21st century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across diverse regions.[15][16]

Production
Green chili production – 2016
Country (millions of tonnes)
 China
17.4
 Mexico
2.7
 Turkey
2.5
 European Union
2.3
 Indonesia
2.0
 Spain
1.1
 United States
0.9
World
34.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[7]

In 2016, 34.5 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.9 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced worldwide.[7] China was the world's largest producer of green chilis, providing half of the global total. Global production of dried chili peppers was about one ninth of fresh production, led by India with 36% of the world total.[7]

Species and cultivars
Thai pepper, similar in variety to the African birdseye, exhibits considerable strength for its size

There are five domesticated species of chili peppers. Capsicum annuum includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile. Capsicum frutescens includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi. Capsicum chinense includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet. Capsicum pubescens includes the South American rocoto peppers. Capsicum baccatum includes the South American aji peppers.[17]

Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum, immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.

Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.

Intensity
A display of hot peppers and a board explaining the Scoville scale at a Houston, Texas, grocery store

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.[18][19] The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.[20]

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.[21] The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU). Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.[22] The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators and microbes, in particular a fusarium fungus carried by hemipteran insects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study.[23] Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant's seeds.[23]

Common peppers
Red Bhut Jolokia and green bird's eye chilies

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper0 SHU
New Mexico green chile0–70,000 SHU
Fresno, jalapeño3,500–10,000 SHU
Cayenne30,000–50,000 SHU
Piri piri50,000–100,000 SHU
Habanero, Scotch bonnet, bird's eye100,000–350,000 SHU[24]

Notable hot chili peppers

Some of the world's hottest chili peppers are:

NOTE: SHU claims marked with an asterisk (*) have not been confirmed by Guinness World Records.[33]

Uses

Culinary uses
Smoke-dried chipotle

Chili pepper pods are, technically, berries. When used fresh, they are most often prepared and eaten like a vegetable. Whole pods can be dried and then crushed or ground into chili powder that is used as a spice or seasoning. Chilies can be dried to prolong their shelf life. Chile peppers can also be preserved by brining, immersing the pods in oil, or by pickling.

Filipino tinola chicken soup with labuyo chili leaves
Chilies at a market in India
Sambal is the name for chili paste in Indonesian, Malaysian and Singaporean cuisine
Thai curry pastes contain large amounts of chilies

Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola.[34] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.[35] In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.

Many Mexican dishes, including variations on chiles rellenos, use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño. In the northern Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora, chiltepin peppers (a wild pepper) are used in cheeses and soups to add spiciness to dishes. In southern Mexico, mole sauce is used with dried chiles, such as ancho and chipotle peppers. Chiles are used in salsas. Mexican households usually grow chile plants to use in cooking.

In India, most households always keep a stock of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.

Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). The ema datshi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese.

Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:

  • Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.
  • Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
  • Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
  • Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.
  • Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chiles.
  • Jambalaya is Cajun dish where the flavors of chicken, shrimp, and Andouille sausages are enhanced by Cayenne pepper. Jambalaya is also sometimes served with a regional hot sauce made from Tabasco peppers.
  • Jerk Chicken is prepared in the Caribbean region of Jamaica, the flavor of the dish owing to Scotch Bonnet Chiles, Allspice, and Thyme.
  • Kung pao chicken (Mandarin Chinese: 宫保鸡丁 gōng bǎo jī dīng) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
  • Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
  • Nam phrik are traditional Thai chili pastes and sauces, prepared with chopped fresh or dry chilies, and additional ingredients such as fish sauce, lime juice, and herbs, but also fruit, meat or seafood.
  • 'Nduja, a more typical example of Italian spicy specialty, from the region of Calabria, is a soft pork sausage made "hot" by the addition of the locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
  • Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
  • Pipérade is a dish from the Basque region of France that incorporates Piment d’Espelette into the recipe.
  • Sambal terasi or sambal belacan is a traditional Indonesian and Malay hot condiment made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chili s, with garlic, shallots, and fermented shrimp paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan teri or ikan bilis (sun-dried anchovies), when it is known as sambal teri or sambal ikan bilis. Various sambal variants existed in Indonesian archipelago, among others are sambal badjak, sambal oelek, sambal pete (prepared with green stinky beans) and sambal pencit (prepared with unripe green mango).
  • Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.
  • Tavuk Kebabi uses mint and Aleppo pepper as a marinade that imparts flavor to skewered pieces of chicken which are grilled before serving.

Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.

Ornamental plants

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

  • Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
    Black pearl pepper
  • Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits[36]
  • Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell[37]

Psychology

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.[38]

Medicinal

Capsaicin, the chemical in chili peppers that makes them hot, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.[39]

Chemical irritants
Main articles: Pepper spray and Tear gas

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in manufacturing pepper spray and tear gas as chemical irritants, forms of less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.[40] Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[40]

Crop defense

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin, the chemical in capsicum chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.[41]

Food defense

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers.[42]

Nutritional value
Peppers, hot chili, red, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy166 kJ (40 kcal)
8.8 g
Sugars5.3 g
Dietary fiber1.5 g
0.4 g
1.9 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
6%
48 μg
5%
534 μg
Vitamin B6
39%
0.51 mg
Vitamin C
173%
144 mg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Iron
8%
1 mg
Magnesium
6%
23 mg
Potassium
7%
322 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water88 g
Capsaicin0.01g – 6 g
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

While red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C (table), other species contain significant amounts of provitamin A beta-carotene.[43] In addition, peppers are a rich source of vitamin B6 (see table).

Spelling and usage

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.

  • Chili is widely used in historically Anglophone regions of the United States[44] and Canada.[45] However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally "chili with meat"). Most versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
  • Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,[46] as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
  • Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli) and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants.[47] Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.[48][49]

The name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names.[50] Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin. Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster.[51] The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili plants and their fruits.

  • The habanero pepper
  • Immature chilies in the field
  • The Black Pearl cultivar
  • Cubanelle peppers
  • Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean market
  • Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
  • Removing veins and seeds from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan
  • Dried chili pepper flakes and fresh chilies
  • Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
  • Dried Thai bird's eye chilies
  • Green chilies
  • Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India
  • Sundried chilli at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  • New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico
  • Chili pepper wine from Virginia
  • Ristras of chili peppers drying in Arizona.
  • Choricero peppers

See also
  • Chili grenade, a type of weapon made with chili peppers
  • Hatch, New Mexico, known as the "Chile Capital of the World"
  • History of chocolate, which the Maya drank with ground chili peppers
  • International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile, organization for the promotion of chili peppers
  • Peppersoup
  • Race to grow the hottest pepper
  • Ristra, an arrangement of dried chili pepper pods
  • Salsa (sauce)
  • Sweet chili sauce, a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food
  • Taboo food and drink, which in some cultures includes chili peppers

References
  1. "Chili pepper". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  2. Minguez Mosquera, M. I.; Hornero Mendez, D. (1994) "Comparative study of the effect of paprika processing on the carotenoids in peppers Capsicum annuum of the Bola and Agridulce varieties", Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 42(7): 1555–1560
  3. The Plant List, Capsicum annuum L.
  4. Dasgupta, Reshmi R (8 May 2011). "Indian chilli displacing jalapenos in global cuisine – The Economic Times". The Times of India.
  5. "HORT410. Peppers – Notes". Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.
  6. Kraft, KH; Brown, CH; Nabhan, GP; Luedeling, E; Luna Ruiz, Jde J; Coppens; d'Eeckenbrugge, G; Hijmans, RJ; Gepts, P (4 December 2013). "Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (17): 6165–6170. doi:10.1073/pnas.1308933111. PMC 4035960. PMID 24753581.
  7. "Chili production in 2016; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  8. Bosland, P.W. (1998). "Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop". In J. Janick (ed.). Progress in New Crops. Arlington, VA: ASHS Press. pp. 479–487. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  9. Kraft, K. H.; Brown, C. H.; Nabhan, G. P.; Luedeling, E.; Luna Ruiz, J. D.; Coppens d'Eeckenbrugge, G.; Hijmans, R. J.; Gepts, P. (2014). "Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (17): 6165–6170. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6165K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1308933111. PMC 4035960. PMID 24753581.
  10. "Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico". EurekaAlert, American Association for the Advancement of Science. 21 April 2014.
  11. van Zonneveld M, Ramirez M, Williams D, Petz M, Meckelmann S, Avila T, Bejarano C, Rios L, Jäger M, Libreros D, Amaya K, Scheldeman X (2015). "Screening genetic resources of Capsicum peppers in their primary center of diversity in Bolivia and Peru". PLoS ONE. 10 (9): e0134663. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1034663V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134663. PMC 4581705. PMID 26402618.
  12. Bosland, Paul W.; Votava, Eric (2000). Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums. New York City: CABI. p. 1. ISBN 9780851993355. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  13. Collingham, Elizabeth (February 2006). Curry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-09-943786-4.
  14. N.Mini Raj; K.V.Peter E.V.Nybe (1 January 2007). Spices. New India Publishing. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-81-89422-44-8.
  15. Simon Robinson (14 June 2007). "Chili Peppers: Global Warming". Time Magazine. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  16. John McQuaid (20 February 2015). "What's driving the global chili pepper craze?". Forbes Media LLC. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  17. Normah, M. N.; Chin, H. F.; Reed, Barbara M. (2013). Conservation of tropical plant species. New York: Springer. p. 397. ISBN 9781461437758. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
  18. S Kosuge, Y Inagaki, H Okumura (1961). Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles. Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi (J. Agric. Chem. Soc.), 35, 923–927; (en) Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.
  19. (ja) S Kosuge, Y Inagaki (1962) Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent
  20. Ruiz-Lau, Nancy; Medina-Lara, Fátima; Minero-García, Yereni; Zamudio-Moreno, Enid; Guzmán-Antonio, Adolfo; Echevarría-Machado, Ileana; Martínez-Estévez, Manuel (1 March 2011). "Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq". HortScience. 46 (3): 487–492. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487. ISSN 0018-5345.
  21. O'Neill, J; Brock, C; Olesen, A. E.; Andresen, T; Nilsson, M; Dickenson, A. H. (2012). "Unravelling the Mystery of Capsaicin: A Tool to Understand and Treat Pain". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (4): 939–971. doi:10.1124/pr.112.006163. PMC 3462993. PMID 23023032.
  22. "History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS". Tabasco.Com. Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  23. Tewksbury, J. J; Reagan, K. M; Machnicki, N. J; Carlo, T. A; Haak, D. C; Peñaloza, A. L; Levey, D. J (2008). "Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (33): 11808–11811. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511808T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0802691105. PMC 2575311. PMID 18695236.
  24. "Chile Pepper Heat Scoville Scale". Homecooking.about.com. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  25. https://www.latimes.com/sns-dailymeal-1812885-pepper-x-worlds-hottest-pepper-hot-sauce-92317-20170923-story.html
  26. "The Hottest Chilli in the World was Created in Wales Accidentally". Archived from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
  27. "Confirmed: Smokin Ed's Carolina Reaper sets new record for hottest chilli". Guinness World Records. 19 November 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  28. "Trinidad Moruga Scorpion wins hottest pepper title" Retrieved 11 May 2013
  29. Joshi, Monika (11 March 2012). "Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot". Your life. USA Today. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012.
  30. "Aussies grow world's hottest chilli" Archived 28 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 12 April 2011
  31. "Title of world's hottest chili pepper stolen – again". The Independent. London. 25 February 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
  32. Henderson, Neil (19 February 2011). ""Record-breaking" chilli is hot news". BBC News. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
  33. url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com title=World's Hottest Chilli
  34. Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  35. Archived 14 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  36. Chilies as Ornamental Plants, Seedsbydesign Archived 15 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  37. Bishop's crown pepper, image, cayennediane
  38. Rozin, Paul; Schiller, Deborah (1980). "The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans". Motivation and Emotion. 4 (1): 77–101. doi:10.1007/BF00995932.
  39. Fattori, V; Hohmann, M. S.; Rossaneis, A. C.; Pinho-Ribeiro, F. A.; Verri, W. A. (2016). "Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses". Molecules. 21 (7): 844. doi:10.3390/molecules21070844. PMC 6273101. PMID 27367653.
  40. Haar, R. J; Iacopino, V; Ranadive, N; Weiser, S. D; Dandu, M (2017). "Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: A systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray". BMC Public Health. 17 (1): 831. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6. PMC 5649076. PMID 29052530.
  41. Mott, Maryann. "Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  42. Tewksbury, J. J.; Nabhan, G. P. (2001). "Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies". Nature. 412 (6845): 403–404. doi:10.1038/35086653. PMID 11473305.
  43. Rodríguez-Burruezo, A; González-Mas Mdel, C; Nuez, F (2010). "Carotenoid composition and vitamin a value in ají (Capsicum baccatum L.) and rocoto (C. Pubescens R. & P.), 2 pepper species from the Andean region". Journal of Food Science. 75 (8): S446–53. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01795.x. PMID 21535519.
  44. "chili" from Merriam-Webster; other spellings are listed as variants, with "Chili" identified as "chiefly British"
  45. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists chili as the main entry, and labels chile as a variant, and chilli as a British variant.
  46. Heiser, Charles (August 1990). Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-79681-2.
  47. "Definition for chilli – Oxford Dictionaries Online (World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
  48. "Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur". Thehindubusinessline.com. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
  49. "Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household". Sundaytimes.lk. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
  50. "Chili or Pepper?". Chilipedia.org. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  51. "va=pepper – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". M-w.com. 13 August 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.