Carrageenan

This is only performed using E. cottonii or E. spinosum. The raw weed is first sorted and crude contaminants are removed by hand. The weed is then washed to remove salt and sand, and then cooked in hot alkali to increase the gel strength. The cooked weed is washed, dried, and milled. E. spinosum undergoes a much milder cooking cycle, as it dissolves quite readily. The product is called semi-refined carrageenan, Philippines natural grade, or, in the U.S., it simply falls under the common carrageenan specification.[10]

                           cleaned and washed seaweed 
                                   ↓
                                extraction
                                   ↓
                             coarse filtration   → seaweed residue
                                   ↓ 
                              fine filtration    → used filter aids
                                   ↓
            ↓-------------- concentration --------------↓
   preparation with KCl                        preparation with alcohol
            ↓                                           ↓
       gel pressing                                alcohol recovery 
            ↓                                           ↓
         drying                                      drying
            ↓                                           ↓ 
         milling                                     milling 
            ↓                                           ↓ 
         blending                                    blending
            ↓                                           ↓
    gel refined carrageenan                     refined carrageenan

The essential difference in the refining process is that the carrageenan is first dissolved and filtered to remove cell wall debris. The carrageenan is then precipitated from the clear solution either by isopropanol or by potassium chloride.[11]

A hybrid technology in which seaweed is treated heterogeneously as in the semirefined process exists, but alcohol or high salt levels are used to inhibit dissolution. This process is often used on South American seaweeds and gives some of the cost benefits of semirefined processing, while allowing a wider range of seaweeds to be processed, however, the naturally low cellulose levels in some South American seaweeds allow them to be heterogeneously processed and still be sold under the EU refined specification.

There are two basic grades of carrageenan: refined carrageenan (RC) and semi-refined carrageenan (SRC). In the United States both grades are labeled as carrageenan. In the European Union, refined carrageenan is designated by the E number E-407, and semi-refined carrageenan as E-407a.[3] Refined carrageenan has a 2% maximum for acid insoluble material and is produced through an alcohol precipitation process or potassium chloride gel press process. Semi-refined carrageenan contains a much higher level of cellulosic content and is produced in a less complex process. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Chile are three main sources of raw material and extracted carrageenan.

• Desserts, carrageen, ice cream, cream, milkshakes, yogurts, salad dressings, sweetened condensed milks
• Sauces: to increase viscosity
• Beer: clarifier to remove haze-causing proteins
• Pâtés and processed meats (e.g., ham): substitute for fat, increase water retention, increase volume, or improve slicing
• Toothpaste: stabilizer to prevent constituents separating
• Fruit Gushers: ingredient in the encapsulated gel
• Fire fighting foam: thickener to cause foam to become sticky
• Shampoo and cosmetic creams: thickener
• Air freshener gels
• Marbling: the ancient art of paper and fabric marbling uses a carrageenan mixture on which to float paints or inks; the paper or fabric is then laid on it, absorbing the colours
• Shoe polish: to increase viscosity
• Biotechnology: to immobilize cells and enzymes
• Pharmaceuticals: used as an inactive excipient in pills and tablets
• Soy milk and other plant milks: to thicken
• Diet sodas: to enhance texture and suspend flavours
• Pet food
• Personal lubricants
• Vegetarian hot dogs

In the U.S., carrageenan is allowed under FDA regulations[12] as a direct food additive and is considered safe[13] when used in the amount necessary as an emulsifier, stabilizer, or thickener in foods, except those standardized foods that do not provide for such use. FDA also reviewed carrageenan safety for infant formula.[14] The European Food Safety Authority concluded "there is no evidence of any adverse effects in humans from exposure to food-grade carrageenan, or that exposure to degraded carrageenan from use of food-grade carrageenan is occurring",[15] Furthermore, the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives stated in a July 2014 review of carrageenan "that the use of carrageenan in infant formula or formula for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000 mg/L is not of concern".[16]

Although the National Organic Program (NOP) had added carrageenan to its National List of additives allowed to be included in organic foods in 2003,[17] and reviewed and reauthorized it in 2008,[18] noting it as "critical to organic production and handling operations",[19] on November 18, 2016 the NOP's National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) voted to recommend carrageenan be removed from the National List of additives allowed in organic food production.[20]

On April 4, 2018 the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) (USDA) published a document to announce the renewal of carrageenan on the National List, allowing its continued use in food products. The document states, “The NOSB recommended removing carrageenan because they determined that alternative materials, such as gellan gum, guar gum, or xanthan gum, are available for use in organic products” continuing, “AMS found sufficient evidence in public comments to the NOSB that carrageenan continues to be necessary for handling agricultural products because of the unavailability of wholly natural substitutes (§ 6517(c)(1)(ii)). Carrageenan has specific uses in an array of agricultural products, and public comments reported that potential substitutes do not adequately replicate the functions of carrageenan across the broad scope of use. Therefore, carrageenan continues to meet the OFPA criteria for inclusion on the National List.” [21] The rule went into effect May 29, 2018.

In the most recent review by an independent panel, the Joint Expert Committee of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization on Food Additives released a technical report in 2015 on the use of carrageenan in infant formula and found that the additive was ‘not of concern’ in infant formula as food for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000 milligrams per litre.[22] The use of carrageenan in infant formula, organic or otherwise, is prohibited in the EU for precautionary reasons, but is permitted in other food items.[23]

In the UK, the Food Standards Agency issued a product recall for sweets containing carrageenan, stating that carrageenan “is not permitted as an ingredient in jelly confectionery products as it presents a choking hazard”.[24]