Slavery as a positive good in the United States

The perception that enslaved African peoples lived in a care-free, comfortable state dates back to the late 1700s.[4] This argument mostly focused on the economic feasibility of enslaving people for their labor despite the inherent subjugation and degradation of human beings. But by the 1810s a new rationale arose that began to treat legalized enslavement as a "positive good" and not as an economically "necessary evil," while still affirming its alleged economic benefits. It appears that this new premise was first expressed by Robert Walsh in 1819:

The physical condition of the American Negro is on the whole, not comparatively alone, but positively good, and he is exempt from those racking anxieties—the exacerbates of despair, to which the English manufacturer and peasant are subject to in the pursuit of their pittance.[5]

Such justification about the "goodness" of enslavement for those who were enslaved became more common in the 1820s. By the late 1820s, the defense of institutional slavery changed over to a national benefit for state governments, enslavers, and enslaved people alike. Legal enslavement drifted from a simple economic system of private enslavers to a political and philosophical position that portrayed enslavement as possessing national importance, providing benefits to the states, including more tax revenue.

A well-known example of this new pro-enslavement approach was voiced by Governor Stephen D. Miller in his 1829 speech to South Carolina's legislators:

Slavery is not a national evil; on the contrary, it is a national benefit. The agricultural wealth of the country is found in those states owning slaves, and a great portion of the revenue of the government is derived from the products of slave labor—Slavery exists in some form everywhere, and it is not of much consequence in a philosophical point of view, whether it be voluntary or involuntary. In a political point of view, involuntary slavery had the advantage, since all who enjoy political liberty are then, in fact, free.[6]

Not long after Governor Miller's speech, the general defense of thralldom drifted towards a position where a "proper social order and foundation of social welfare played a major role" in the pro-enslavement debate.[7]

Another economic defense of enslaved labor came from economist Thomas Roderick Dew, professor at and then president of the College of William and Mary, who downplayed the evil of owning humans after the Virginia House of Burgesses almost passed legislation for the emancipation of enslaved people in 1832.[8] Dew supported enslavement on philosophical, economic and Biblical grounds, arguing that chattel slavery was not necessarily an immoral system.[9] In portraying Southern enslavement-based society as "superior" to Northern free society, Dew's pro-slavery argument turned into a "positive good" defense.[10]

On February 1, 1836, Congressman James Henry Hammond from South Carolina spoke on the House floor for two hours about the perceived menace of abolitionism. He launched an attack on pro-human rights opponents in the North, while defending the social and economic benefits to Whites of enslavement in the South. Hammond's speech on enslavement was considered a new departure in the American Congress, distinguished as the "first explicit defense of slavery as a positive good."[11]

In that 1836 speech, Hammond attempted to justify the practice:

Slavery is said to be an evil… But is not evil. On the contrary, I believe it to be the greatest of all the great blessings which a kind Providence has bestowed upon our glorious region… As a class, I say it boldly; there is not a happier, more contented race upon the face of the earth… Lightly tasked, well clothed, well fed—far better than the free laborers of any country in the world,… their lives and persons protected by the law, all their sufferings alleviated by the kindest and most interested care,…[12]

A Democrat, Hammond was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1842. He was best known during his lifetime as an outspoken defender of the South and the institution of slavery.[13]

After traveling through Europe, Hammond concluded that free laborers were being exploited by soulless materialism in England and the North, where workers had the "liberty only to starve," while Southerners were far more protective, assuming "responsibility for every aspect of the lives" of their slaves.[14]

Hammond co-authored The Pro-Slavery Argument with William Harper, Thomas Roderick Dew, and William Gilmore Simms, who composed part of the "sacred circle" of proslavery intellectuals.[15]

The best-known political figure to defend black slavery as a "positive good," was John C. Calhoun, a political theorist and the seventh Vice President of the United States who abandoned the proslavery Nullifier Party by 1839 and joined the Democratic Party. To Calhoun, slavery was a great benefit for an inferior race that had no ability to exercise their freedom positively. Calhoun argued:

Never before has the black race of Central Africa, from the dawn of history to the present day, attained a condition so civilized and so improved, not only physically, but morally and intellectually… It came to us in a low, degraded, and savage condition, and in the course of a few generations it has grown up under the fostering care of our institutions.[16]

The concept of slavery as a positive good came to the forefront in Calhoun's February 6, 1837, speech on the US Senate floor. In an attempt to disarm the abolitionists' moral outrage over slavery as "man-stealing," ignoring the anti-slavery tradition of the Founders, Calhoun, like many proslavery Southerners, pointed to the ancient world to help them defend the institution of slavery, especially Aristotle's theory of natural slavery.[17] Greek democracy along with the grandeur of the Roman republic provided Southerners with a perspective that great cultures and slavery were inseparable.[18]

Attempting to claim the moral mantle for the social defense of involuntary servitude, Calhoun declared:

I take higher ground. I hold that in the present state of civilization, where two races of different origin, and distinguished by color, and other physical differences, as well as intellectual, are brought together, the relation now existing in the slaveholding States between the two, is, instead of an evil, a good—a positive good.

In that 1837 speech, Calhoun further argued that the slaveholders took care of their slaves from birth to old age, urging the opponents of slavery to "look at the sick, and the old and infirm slave, on one hand, in the midst of his family and friends, under the kind superintending care of his master and mistress, and compare it with the forlorn and wretched condition of the pauper in the poor house" found in Europe and the Northern states.[19]

Such an assertion was predicated on the virtues of benevolent paternalism, the glory of past civilizations, and the traditions of white supremacy.[20] In an effort to illustrate that the North was also guilty of treating and exploiting its free laborers like slaves, Calhoun declared in his speech "that there never has yet existed a wealthy and civilised society in which one portion of the community did not...live on the labour of the other."

Most Southern slaveholders and intellectuals favored Calhoun's ideas and maintained that the institution of slavery "benefited both master and servant."[21] In that arrangement, the slaveholder acquired his labor and the slave was given a standard of living far beyond what he could ever hope to achieve on his own. Calhoun's "positive good" argument was a radical departure from the Founders' position that slavery was a temporary evil that was in "the course of ultimate extinction."[22]

While Calhoun sought to defend slavery as a positive good, he expanded his argument to condemn the North and industrial capitalism, asserting that slavery was "actually superior to the 'wage slavery' of the North."[23] He believed that free laborers in the North were just as enslaved as the Negro workers in the South. However, in the case of slaves in the South, Calhoun argued that Negros were receiving special protection under a caring and paternalistic master, and therefore were more fortunate.[24]

In his manifesto, A Disquisition on Government, Calhoun opposed equality upon birth assertion that the Founders declared in the Declaration of Independence, arguing that not all people are "equally entitled to liberty."[25] To bolster the prospects of slavery, he asserted that liberty was not a universal right but should be "reserved for the intelligent, the patriotic, the virtuous and deserving," which would exclude both free and enslaved Negros. Moreover, in 1820, Calhoun explained to John Quincy Adams that slave labor was the mechanics by which to maintain social control, calling it the "best guarantee for equality among whites."[26]

Before the 1830s, the support for slavery was weakening in the South. During this period many Southerners agreed that, in the abstract, slavery constituted an evil. They claimed that they had no participation in its introduction, and laid blame of involuntary servitude of blacks on "old Grandam Britain."[27] Nonetheless, few Southerners were willing to also call slavery "a sin."[28] This attitude resulted in a situation where "slave states contained a great many more anti-slavery societies than the free states."[29] After the Abolitionists escalated their intellectual attacks against slavery as a violation of natural rights and self-ownership principles, pro-slavery Southerners felt threatened and retaliated with their own philosophical and morality-based justifications to defend involuntary servitude. The pro-slavery adherents felt compelled to take a hardline stance and engaged in a vehement and growing ideological defense of slavery.[30] Pro-slavery intellectuals and slaveholders began to rationalize slavery as a positive good that benefited slaveholders and slaves alike. Calhoun believed that the ownership of Negros was a right and an obligation, causing the pro-slavery intelligentsia to position slavery within paternalistic and social well-being relationships that also required reciprocal duties from the enslaved.

Another aspect of slavery as a positive good motivated Southern white women to offer plantation slaves material goods as well as maternal care to what they considered unfit or feeble-minded Negros.[31] Plantation mistresses spent considerable time in an attempt to civilize their slave laborers by providing food, shelter, and affection. In this sense, antebellum Southern women saw slaves as having childlike traits who required protection.[32] While engaging in this type of social welfare activity, they attempted to convince plantation slaves that their condition was far better than those of the white or black factory workers in the industrial North.[33]

George Fitzhugh was a slaveholder, a prominent pro-slavery Democrat, and sociological theorist who advanced the argument for slavery as a social-welfare plantation structure that would provide blacks with better care than the free labor in the North. He took the positive-good argument to its final extreme conclusion.[34] Fitzhugh argued that Southern slaves had a "guarantee of livelihood, protection and support," and that if a master failed to perform his social welfare duties, he could be forced to sell his slaves to a more capable slaveholder.[35] In this way, Fitzhugh contended that slavery relieves slaves of their cares altogether and that "slavery is a form...[the] very best form, of socialism.[36] He believed that "Slavery protects the infants, the aged and the sick," along with the healthy and the strong.[37]

Fitzhugh declared that "the unrestricted exploitation of so-called free society is more oppressive to the laborer than domestic slavery."[38] In later years, Fitzhugh not only supported slavery for blacks, but like other proslavery intellectuals, came to the conclusion that it was also suitable for whites, if considered unfit.[39] He believed that to uphold paternalistic and equalitarian values, whites, if trained well and domesticated, could be as "faithful and valuable servants" as blacks.[40]

Taking an authoritarian position, Fitzhugh argued that "All government is slavery," and that "no one ought to be free."[41] And yet he, like other proslavery theorists, believed that "slavery ultimately made democracy work."[42] Despite his views on democracy, Fitzhugh summed up his proslavery stance by arguing man's duty to protect the weak from the strong, writing:

'It is the duty of society to protect the weak;' but protection cannot be efficient without the power of control; therefore, 'It is the duty of society to enslave the weak.'[43]

Fitzhugh's views were influential and widely acknowledged in the South. The Richmond Enquirer found Fitzhugh's pro-slavery sentiments to be sound, declaring that the justification of slavery was not an issue of "mere negro slavery," but that in of itself "slavery is a right, natural and necessary."[44] Fitzhugh maintained that slavery was the best institution to ensure "the rights of man."[45]

Founded in 1828, the Democratic Party's success and prominence across the political landscape has been attributed to its ability to reshape the issue of slavery as a "morally beneficial institution," especially to the more radical faction of Southerners within the Democratic Party.[46] By the mid-nineteenth century, Democrats had become not only the most ardent defenders of slavery, but the most important institutional supporter of slavery.[47]

Andrew Jackson, who owned throughout his life up to 300 slaves,[48] was the first U.S. President (1829–1837) to be elected from the newly founded Democratic Party. Jackson was accused of not only beating his slaves, but banned the delivery of anti-slavery literature through the mail, calling abolitionists monsters who should "atone for this wicked attempt with their lives."[49]

Under the Democratic-dominated Confederacy, many proslavery activities within the Southern intelligentsia and political community took the position that they were simply "upholding the great principles which our fathers bequeathed us."[50] They regarded the practice of holding other humans in chattel bondage as a "constitutional freedom" that was enshrined in the U.S. Constitution.[51]

Near the end of the Antebellum Era, the "Democratic party was seen as "irrevocably wedded to the institution of Slavery...hand and heart.[52] As the Southern armies began suffering defeats in the battlefield, the New York Times opined that the Southern Democrats' devotion to slavery held a "stubbornness of fond infatuation such as the world has seldom seen."[53]

• Proslavery