Reichenau Glosses

The Reichenau Glosses were compiled in the 8th century in Picardy[1][2] to help monks reading the Vulgate Bible understand words that had either gone extinct or developed a new meaning in their dialect of Romance. Each of these was glossed by a synonym written in Latin form, though not always of Latin origin.[3]

In the table below, obviously non-native words such as Italian formaggio (which was borrowed from French) are not counted among the derivatives. All of the Romance words, unless otherwise specified, are stressed on the same syllable as the Proto-Romance form. Sounds that may or may not be present in a word- depending on dialect, phonetic context, etc.- are shown in subscript.

Archaic Term	Meaning	Gloss	Origin of Gloss	Derivatives of Gloss	Derivatives of Archaic Term
abdito	hidden	absconso	CL abscondito 'hidden' (cognate to abdito but with an additional prefix) had the variant absconso.	Pr. [askó_nsu]O.Fr [eskons]O.Oc [eskos]Ct. [əskuns]It. [askoso]O.Sp [eskuso]O.Pt [eskusu]Rm. [askuns]	—
abio[lower-greek 1]	I go away	vado	This could mean 'I go' in CL, but the usual sense was 'wade'.	Pr. [βáw] O.Fr [vojs][lower-roman 1] Fr. [vɛ_z] Oc. [baw] Dl. [vis] It. [voː] Sp. [boj][lower-roman 2] Po. [vow]
abgetarii[lower-greek 2]	woodworkers	carpentarii	CL for 'wagon makers'. From Gaulish *karpantos 'chariot' with occupational suffix -arii.	Pr. [karpentáːɾ^ji]^nomO.Fr [tʃarpentjær]
abgetarii[lower-greek 2]	woodworkers	carpentarii		Pr. [karpentáːɾ^jos]^accO.Fr [tʃarpentjærs] Fr. [ʃaχpɑ̃tje_z]Oc. [kaɾpentjɛs]Sp. [kaɾpinteɾos]Po. [kaɾpĩntɐjɾuʃ]
absintio	wormwood	aloxino	Greek ἀλόη όξίνης[6] 'bitter aloe'.	Pr. [alɔ́ksɪna] O.Fr [alujznə] Fr. [alɥin_ə] O.Sp [alozna] Po. alosna	Pr. [apsɪ́nts^jo] Oc. [awsen] Dl. ascianz O.It [assentso] Sp. [axeŋxo]
adolescentia	youth	iuventus	CL synonym.	Pr. [ɟʊβɛ́ntu] O.Fr [dʒovent] Oc. [dʒuβen] Ct. [ʒuβen_t]	—
adolescentia	youth	iuventus	CL synonym.	Pr. [ɟʊβentúːte]Oc. [dʒuβentyt]Ct. [ʒuβəntut]It. [dʒoventu]Sp. [xuβentuð]Po. [ʒuvẽtuðɨ]
aculeus	stinger	aculeonis	Romance derivative of the older term.	Pr. [akuʎʎóːne]Fr. [ɛɡɥijɔ̃]Oc. [aɣyʎu]Sp. [aɣixon]Po. [ɐgiʎɐ̃w]
aes	bronze	eramen	LL derivative composed of aes (oblique stem aer-) and material suffix -men.	Pr. [aráːme] Fr. [ɛʁɛ̃] Oc. [aɾan] Ct. [əɾam] Rs. arom It. [raːme] Gal. arame Po. [ɐɾɐmɨ] Rm. [aramə]
aes	bronze	eramen		Pr. [aráːmɪne][7] Sp. [alambɾe] Sd. [raːmɛnɛ] or [raːmini]
ager	field	campus	CL synonym.	Pr. [kámpʊs]^nom O.Fr [tʃans]	Pr. [áːɣɾu] O.Fr [ajrə] Fr. [ɛʁ_ə] O.Oc agre 'eyrie' It. [aːgro] Gal. agra Rm. [aɡru] 'field, land'
ager	field	campus	CL synonym.	Pr. [kámpu]^acc O.Fr [tʃamp] Fr. [ʃɑ̃] Oc. [kan] Ct. [kam] Rs. champ It. [kampo] Sp. [kampo] Sd. [kampu] Dl. [kuo̯mp] Po. [kɐ̃mpu] Rm. [kɨmp]
annuant	that they nod	cinnant	Verb based on LL cinnus 'wink', itself of unclear origin.	Pr. [_akkɪ́nnant] O.Fr [_atsenənt] O.Oc [tsenan] It. [attʃennano] Po. [ɐsenɐ̃w]	—
anxiaretur	that he be distressed	angustiaretur	LL verb based on CL angustia 'tribulations, difficulties'.	Pr. [aŋgʊ́ss^jat] O.Fr [aŋgojsəθ] Fr. [ɑ̃ɡwas_ə] Oc. [angujsɔ] Ct. [əŋɡoʃə] It. [aŋgoʃʃa]	Pr. [ans^jáːɾe] O.It [ansjaːɾe] Sp. [ansjaɾ] Po. [ɐ̃sjaɾ] 'eagerly await'
aper	boar	salvaticus porcus	Porcus is CL for 'pig'. Salvaticus reflects Pr. evolution of CL silvaticus 'wild'.	Pr. [pɔ́rkʊs salβáːtɪkʊs]^nom O.Fr [pɔrs salvadʒəs]	Pr. [apru] Sd. porcabru[lower-roman 3]
aper	boar	salvaticus porcus		Pr. [pɔ́rku salβáːtɪku]^acc O.Fr [pɔrk salvadʒə] Fr. [pɔχ sovaʒ_ə] Oc. [pɔɾk salβadʒe] Ct. [pɔɾk səlβadʒə] Rs. portg selvadi Dl. [pwark salvutik] It. [pɔrko salvaːtiko] Rm. [pork səlbatik]	Pr. [apru] Sd. porcabru[lower-roman 3]
arbusta	orchards	arbricellus	Diminutive of arbor 'tree'.	Pr. [aɾβoɾɪskɛ́ɭɭu] O.Fr [arbrisɛl] Fr. [aʁbʁiso] Oc. [aɾbɾisɛl] 'shrubbery' It. [arboʃʃɛllo] 'sapling'	Gal. albustre
area	threshing floor	danea	Frankish *dannja.	Wal. dègne[8]	Pr. [áːɾ^ja] O.Fr [ajrə] Fr. [ɛʁ_ə] Oc. [jɛɾɔ] Ct. [eɾə] It. [aja] Sp. [eɾa] Po. [ɐjɾɐ] Rm. arie
arena	sand	sabulo	CL for 'gravel'.	Pr. [saβlóːne] Fr. [sablɔ̃] Oc. [saβlu] Ct. [sawɫo] Rs. [səblun] It. [sabbjoːne] Dl. [salbawŋ] Sp. [saβlon] Ist.Rm [salbun]	Pr. [aréːna] O.Fr [arejnə] Oc. [aɾenɔ] Ct. [əɾɛnə] It. [reːna] Sp. [aɾena] Gal. area Po. [ɐɾɐjɐ] Arm. [arinə]
armilla	bracelet	baucus	Ultimately from Proto-Germanic *baugaz, which had the same sense.	O.Fr [bɔw]	Pr. [armɪ́ɭɭa] Sp. [aɾmeʎa]
atram	black	nigram	More usual CL synonym.	Pr. [nɪ́ɣɾa] O.Fr [nejrə] Fr. [nwaʁ_ə] Oc. [neɣɾɔ] Ct. [nɛɣɾə] Rs. [najrə] Dl. [njara] It. [neːɾa] Sp. [neɣɾa] Po. [neɣɾɐ] Rm. [ne̯aɡrə]	—
axis	axle	ascialis	Axis with adjective-forming suffix -alis.	Pr. [aksáːle] O.Fr [ajsæl]	Pr. [ákse] Fr. [ɛ] 'plank' Oc. [ajs] Ct. [eʃ] It. [asse] Sp. [exe] Po. [ejʃu] 'beam, axle'
axis	axle	ascialis	Axis with adjective-forming suffix -alis.	Pr. [aksíːle] O.Fr [ajsil] Fr. [esjø]
benignitate	kindness	bonitate	CL contextual synonym.	Pr. [bonɪtáːte] O.Fr [bontæθ] Fr. [bɔ̃te] Oc. [buntat] Ct. [bundat] It. [bonta] Sp. [bondað] Po. [bõdaðɨ] Rm. [bunətate]	—
binas	in pairs	duas et duas	Periphrase, 'two and two'.	Fr. deux à deux It. due a due Sp. de dos en dos Po. de dois em dois	—
calamus	pen for writing	penna	CL for 'feather'.	Pr. [pɪ́nna] O.Fr [penə] It. [penna] Sic. [pinna] Po. [penɐ] Rm. [pe̯anə]	Pr. [káːlamu] O.Fr [tʃalmə] Fr. [ʃom_ə] 'stubble, thatch'
callidior	more devious	vitiosior	Comparative form of CL vitiosus 'wicked, corrupt'. The core noun vitium 'sin' is common in Christian writings.	Pr. [βɪts^jóːsu] O.Fr [vitsows] Fr. [visjø] Oc. [bisjus] 'depraved' It. [vettsoːso] 'charming'	—
calumpniam	slander	contentio	CL for 'quarrel, dispute'.	Pr. [tents^jóːne] Oc. [tensu]	Pr. [kalʊ́mɲa] O.Fr [tʃalondʒə] O.Oc [kalondʒa] Sp. [kaloɲa] Po. [kwĩmɐ]
calx	heel	calcaneum	Rare CL synonym composed of calx and -aneum.	Pr. [kalkáɲɲu] O.Fr dial [kalkajn][9] Oc. dial [kawkaɲ] O.Ct [kəɫkaɲ] Rs. chalchagn It. [kalkaɲɲo] Sd. carcàngiu O.Sp [kalkaɲo] Arom. cãlcãnju Rm. călcâi	—
canere	to sing	cantare	CL frequentative form of canere.	Pr. [kantáːɾe] O.Fr [tʃantær] Fr. [ʃɑ̃te] Oc. [kanta] Ct. [kənta] Rs. chantar It. [kantaːɾe] Dl. [kantur] Sd. [kantaːɾe] Sp. [kantaɾ] Po. [kɐ̃ntaɾ] Rm. [kɨntare]
cartallo	basket	panario	CL for 'breadbasket', composed of pane 'bread' and locational suffix -ario.	Pr. [panáːɾ^ju] O.Fr [panjær] Fr. [panje] Oc. [panjɛɾ] It. dial panaio Sp. [paneɾo] Po. [pɐnɐjɾu] Rm. [paner]
caseum	cheese	formaticum	LL formaticus caseus, lit. 'cheese made in a mould'.	Pr. [foɾmáːtɪku] O.Fr [formadʒə] Fr. [fχɔmaʒ_ə] Oc. [fuɾmadʒe] Ct. [fuɾmadʒə]	Pr. [káːs^ju] It. [kaːtʃo] Dl. [kis] Sd. [kaːzu] Sp. [keso] Po. [kɐjʒu] Rm. [kaʃ]
caseum	cheese	formaticum	LL formaticus caseus, lit. 'cheese made in a mould'.		Pr. [kas^jɔ́ːlu]^dim Rs. chaschöl
crastro[lower-greek 3]	army camp	heribergo	Frankish *heriberga.	O.Fr herberge Oc. [alβɛ́rɣɔ]	Pr. [kastɾu] Ar. qaṣr[lower-roman 4]
cementarii	masons	mationes	Frankish *makjo. Note confusion of ⟨ti⟩ and ⟨ci⟩, which both represent [ts].[10]	O.Fr [matsons] Fr. [masɔ̃_z] Oc. [masus]	O.Fr *cimentiers Fr. [simɑ̃tje_z]
cementariis	masons	macionibus		O.Fr [matsons] Fr. [masɔ̃_z] Oc. [masus]	O.Fr *cimentiers Fr. [simɑ̃tje_z]
cenacula	chambers	mansiunculas	diminutive of CL mansiones 'lodges'.	Pr. [mas^jóːnes] O.Fr [majzons] Fr. [mɛzɔ̃_z] Oc. [majzus] It. [madʒoːni] 'houses' Sd. [mazɔːnɛzɛ] 'herds'	—
cesis	beaten	flagellatis	CL for 'beaten with a whip'.	Pr. [flaɣeɭɭáːtos] O.Fr flaelez
cibaria	food	cibus vivendi	Reminiscent of Pr. vivanda 'food', altered from CL vivenda 'that which is necessary for life'.	Pr. [βiβánda] O.Fr [vjandə] 'food' Fr. [vjɑ̃d_ə] 'meat' Oc. [vjandɔ] It. [vivanda] 'food'
cibaria	food	cibus vivendi		Pr. [βiβέnda] Sp. [biβjenda] Po. [vivẽndɐ] 'residence, housing'
clibanus	oven	furnus	CL synonym.	Pr. [fʊ́ɾnu]^acc O.Fr [for_n] Fr. [fuʁ] Oc. [fuɾ_n] Ct. [foɾn] Rs. fourn It. [forno] Sd. [furru] Sp. [oɾno] Po. [foɾnu] Arom. furnu
clivium	hill	montania	CL mont- 'mountain' with locational suffix -anea.	Pr. [montáɲɲa] O.Fr [montaɲə] Fr. [mɔ̃taɲ_ə] Oc. [muntaɲɔ] Ct. [muntaɲə] Rs. [muntoɲə] It. [montaɲɲa] Sp. [montaɲa] Po. [mõntɐɲɐ]
coccinus	scarlet red	rubeus	CL for 'red'.	Pr. [rʊ́β^jʊs]^nom O.Fr [rodʒəs]
coccinus	scarlet red	rubeus	CL for 'red'.	Pr. [rʊ́β^ju]^acc O.Fr [rodʒə] Fr. [ʁuʒ_ə] Oc. [rudʒe] Ct. [rɔtʃ] Sp. [ruβjo] Po. [ʁujvu] Rm. [rojb]
colliridam	type of pastry	turtam	CL tortam 'twisted' in reference to the pastry's shape.	Pr. [tʊ́ɾta] O.Fr [tortə] Fr. [tuχt_ə] Oc. [tuɾtɔ] Rs. turta Sd. [tuɾta] It. [torta] Dl. [turta] Sp. [toɾta] Rm. [turtə]
commutatione	exchange	concambiis	Gaulish *kambjon.	Pr. [kámb^ju] Fr. [ʃɑ̃ʒ_ə] Oc. [kambi] It. [kambjo] Sp. [kambjo] Po. [kɐ̃mbju] Rm. [skimb][lower-roman 5]
compellit	he urges	anetset	Frankish *anhattian.[12]	O.Fr [anetsəθ] O.It [annittsa] O.Po [anatsa]
concidit	he cut	taliavit	Verb based on CL talea 'cutting from a plant'.	Pr. [taʎʎá_wt] O.Fr [taʎaθ] Fr. [tɑja] O.Oc [taʎa][13] Ct. [təʎa] It. [taʎʎɔ] Sp. [taxo] Po. [tɐʎow] Rm. [təje]
contumeliam	belittlement	verecundiam	CL for 'shame'.	Pr. [βeɾɣʊ́ɲɲa] Fr. [vɛʁɡɔɲ_ə] Oc. [beɾɣuɲɔ] Ct. [bəɾɣoɲə] It. [verɡoɲɲa] O.Sp [βeɾɣweɲa] Po. [vɨɾɣoɲɐ]
contumeliam	belittlement	verecundiam	CL for 'shame'.	Pr. [βeɾɣʊ́nts^ja] Sd. bregunza Sp. [beɾɣwenθa] O.Po [veɾɣontsa]
coturnices	quails	quacoles	Frankish *kwakla, likely onomatopoeic.	O.Fr [kaʎəs] Fr. [kɑj_ə.z] Oc. [kaʎɔs] Ct. [ɡwaʎʎəs] Rs. quacras It. [kwaʎʎe]	Pr. [kotʊɾníːkes] O.It [kotorniːtʃi] Sp. [koðoɾniθes] Po. [kuðuɾnizɨʃ]
coturnices	quails	quacoles	Frankish *kwakla, likely onomatopoeic.		Pr. [kotʊɾníːklas]^dim Rm. [potɨrnik^j][lower-roman 6] 'partridges'
scabrones[lower-greek 4]	hornets	wapces	Frankish *wapsa.	O.Fr [gwɛspəs][lower-roman 7] Fr. [ɡɛp_ə.z]	Pr. [kaɾabɾóːnes] It. [kalaβroːni] Po. [kɐ̃mbɾɐ̃w̃ʃ]
crebro[lower-greek 5]	sieve	crivolo	The product of liquid dissimilation, one of several ways that Pr. eliminated the sequence of two r's. The additional ⟨o⟩ is dubious.	Pr. [kɾíβlu] Fr. [kχibl_ə]	—
				Pr. [kɾíβu] Sp. [kɾiβa]^fem Po. [kɾivu]
				Pr. [kíβɾu] Rm. [ʧjur]
				Pr. [kɾiβέɭɭu]^dim Oc. [kɾiβɛl] It. [krivɛllo]
crura	shins	tibia	CL contextual synonym.	Pr. [tíːβ^ja] O.Fr [tidʒə] Fr. [tiʒ_ə] Oc. [tidʒɔ] Ca. [tiʒə] 'stem'
culmen	peak	spicus	CL had the masculine variant spicus alongside the more usual spica 'spike, ear of grain'.	Pr. [_ɪspíːku]^acc O.Fr [espi] Fr. [epi] Oc. [espik] Fri. [spi] Rm. [spik]	Pr. [kʊ́lme] It. [kolmo] Po. [kuɫmɨ] Rm. [kulme]
culmen	peak	spicus		Pr. [_ɪspíːka] Oc. [espiɣɔ] Ct. [əspiɣə] Dl. [spajka] Sd. [ispiːɣa] It. [spiːga] Sp. [espiɣa] Po. [iʃpiɣɐ]	Pr. [kʊ́lmɪne] Sp. [kumbɾe]
cuncti	all	omnes	CL synonym.	Pr. [ɔ́mnes] It. [oɲɲi] Sd. onzi	—
da	give	dona	CL synonym.	Pr. [dóːna] O.Fr [donə] Fr. [dɔn_ə] Oc. [dunɔ] Ct. [donə]	Pr. [dá] Oc. dial [da] Rs. dai It. [da] Dl. [duo̯] Sp. [da] Po. [da] Rm. [də]
denudare	lay bare	discooperire	CL cooperire 'cover' with dis as a negating prefix.	Pr. [dɪskoperíːɾe] O.Fr [deskovrir] Fr. [dekuvʁiʁ] Oc. [deskuβɾi] Ct. [dəskuβɾi] Dl. [diskoprer] It. [diskopriːɾe] Sp. [deskuβɾiɾ] Po. [dɨʃkuβɾiɾ] Rm. [deskoperire]	Pr. [dɪznuðáːɾe] O.Fr [deznuðær] Fr. [denɥe] 'deprive' Sp. [deznuðaɾ] Po. desnudar 'undress'
detestare	revile	blasphemare	CL synonym borrowed from Greek βλασφημέειν.	Pr. [blastemáːɾe] O.Fr [blasmær] Fr. [blɑme] Oc. [blajma] Ct. [bɫəzma] Rs. blastemmar It. [bestemmjaːɾe] Dl. [blasmur] Sp. [lastimaɾ] Po. [lɐʃtimaɾ] Rm. [blestemare]	—
dilecta	beloved	amata	More usual CL synonym.	Pr. [amáːta] O.Fr [amæðə] Fr. [ɛme_ə][upper-roman 1] Oc. [ajmaðɔ] Ct. [əmaðə] It. [amaːta] Sp. [amaða] Po. [ɐmaðɐ]	—
ducta	led	menata	CL minata 'prodded, threatened' in reference to farm animals.	Pr. [mɪnáːta] O.Fr [mənæðə] Fr. [məne_ə] Oc. [menaðɔ] Ct. [mənaðə] It. [menaːta] Rm. [mɨnatə]	Pr. [_kondʊ́kta] O.Fr [_kondujtə] Fr. [kɔ̃dɥit_ə] Oc. [kundytʃɔ] Ct. [_kundujtə] It. [kondotta] Rm. [dusə]
emit	he bought	comparavit	CL for 'obtained'.	Pr. [kompará_wt] O.Fr [kompəraθ] Ct. [kumpɾa] It. [komprɔ] Sp. [kompɾo] Po. [kõmpɾow] Rm. [kumpərə] 'bought'	—
ensis	sword	gladius	More usual CL synonym.	Pr. [ɡlájʊs] O.Fr [ɡlajs] 'sword lily'	—
escas	food	cibos	More usual CL synonym.	Pr. [kɪ́βos] Sp. [θeβos] Po. [sevuʃ] 'bait'	Pr. [ɛ́skas] Fr. [ɛʃ_ə.z] Oc. [eskɔs] Po. [iskɐʃ] 'bait' Ct. [ɛskəs] It. [eske] 'bait, tinder' Sp. [jeskas] Rm. [jeʃtʲ] 'tinder'
exacerbaverunt	they irritated	exasperaverunt	CL synonym. An unprefixed version with a change in conjugation survived in Romance.	Pr. [asperíːɾʊnt] O.Fr [asprirənt] O.It [aspriːrono]	—
exaurire	to drain	scavare	CL excavare 'dig out, empty', composed of ex 'out' and cav- 'hollow'.	Pr. [eskaβáːɾe] O.Fr [estʃavær] Oc. [eskaβa] Rs. stgavar It. [skavaːɾe] Sp. [eskaβaɾ] Po. [iʃkɐvaɾ]
exterminabit	he shall extirpate	eradicabit	CL synonym.	Pr. [eɾaðikáːɾe] O.Fr [aratʃjær] Fr. [aʁaʃe] O.Oc araigar Rm. [ridikare]
exuerunt	they stripped away	expoliaverunt	CL synonym. The unprefixed spoliaverunt survived in Romance.	Pr. [_ɪspoʎʎáːɾʊnt] O.Fr [espoʎærənt] It. [spoʎʎaːɾono] O.Sp [espoʒaɾon][upper-roman 2] Po. esbulharam
faretra	quiver	teca sagittarum	Periphrase, 'container for arrows'. The first word is a CL borrowing from Greek θήκη; the latter is native.	Pr. [téːka] O.Fr [tejə] Fr. [tɛ_ə] 'pillowcase' It. [teːga] 'pod' Rm. [te̯akə] 'case, sheath'
		teca sagittarum		Pr. [saɣɪ́ttas] O.Fr [saetəs] Oc. [sadʒetɔs] Ct. [səʒɛtəs] O. It [saette] Sp. [saetas] Po. [sɛtɐʃ] Rm. [sədʒetsʲ]
		cupra	Frankish loan, cf. German Köcher.	O.Fr cuivre
fatigatus	tired	lassus	CL synonym.	Pr. [lássʊs] O.Fr [las] Fr. [lɑ] Oc. [las]
femur	thigh	coxa	CL for 'hip'.	Pr. [kɔ́ksa] O.Fr [kujsə] Fr. [kɥis_ə] Oc. [kɥɛjsɔ] Ct. [kuʃə] Rs. cossa It. [kɔʃʃa] Sd. [kɔssa] Sp. [kuxa] Po. [koʃɐ] Dl. [kopsa] Rm. [ko̯apsə] 'thigh'
femur	thigh	cingolo[lower-greek 6]	CL for 'belt'.	Pr. [kɪ́ŋɡla] O.Fr [tseŋɡlə] Fr. [sɑ̃ɡl_ə] Oc. [seŋglɔ] Ct. [siŋɡɫə] It. [tʃiŋɡja] Po. [siʎɐ] Rm. [kiŋɡə] 'strap, girdle'
ferus	savage	durus	CL for 'harsh, severe'.	Pr. [dúːɾʊs]^nom O.Fr [durs] Rs. [dirs][lower-roman 8]	Pr. [fɛ́ːɾʊs]^nom O.Fr [fjɛrs] 'proud'
ferus	savage	durus	CL for 'harsh, severe'.	Pr. [dúːɾu]^acc O.Fr [dur] Fr. [dyʁ] Oc. [dy_ɾ] Ct. [du] Rs. [dir] Lom. [dyːr] It. [duːro] Dl. [dojr] Sp. [duɾo] Po. [duɾu]	Pr. [fɛ́ːɾu]^acc O.Fr [fjɛr] Fr. [fjɛʁ] It. [fjɛːro] 'proud' Ct. [feɾ] Sp. [fjeɾo] 'wild'
fervet	it boils	bullit	CL synonym.	Pr. [bʊ́ɭɭɪt] O.Fr [bolt] Fr. [bu_t] Oc. [buʎe] Ct. [buʎ] It. [bolle] Sd. [buɖɖɛ] Sp. [buʎe] 'boils' Po. [bulɨ] 'fidgets'	Pr. [fɛ́ɾβet] It. [fɛrve] 'has a fever' Sp. [ɟʝeɾβe] Po. [fɛɾvɨ] Rm. [fjerbe]
fex	dregs	lias	Gaulish *ligas.	O.Fr [liəs] Fr. [li_ə.z]	—
flare	to blow	suflare	CL flare prefixed with sub.	Pr. [sʊffláːɾe] O.Fr [soflær] Fr. [sufle] Oc. [sufla] Rs. suflar It. [soffjaːɾe] O.Sp [soʎaɾ][19] Cnt. asuellar Po. [supɾaɾ] Rm. [suflare]	—
flasconem	flask	buticulam	diminutive of LL buttis 'cask, barrel' from Greek βοῦττις.	Pr. [bʊttɪ́kla] O.Fr [boteʎə] Fr. [butɛj_ə] Oc. [buteʎɔ]	O.Fr [flasˈkon] Fr. [flakɔ̃] Oc. [flasˈku] Ct. [fɫəsˈko] It. [ˈfjasko] Sp. [ˈfɾasko] Po. [ˈfɾaʃku]
fletur	there is weeping	planctur	An attempt to spell CL plangitur, 'there is mourning'.	Pr. [pláŋgeɾe] O.Fr [plajndrə] Fr. [plɛ̃dʁ_ə] Oc. [plaɲe] Ct. [pɫaɲə] Dl. [pluŋɡrə] It. [pjaŋdʒeɾe] O.Sp [ʎaˈɲeɾ] O.Po changer Rm. [plɨndʒere]	—
forum	marketplace	mercatum	CL contextual synonym	Pr. [merkáːtu] O.Fr [martʃjæθ] Fr. [maχʃe] Oc. [meɾkat] Ct. [məɾkat] Rs. marchà It. [merkaːto] Sp. [meɾkaðo] Po. [mɨɾkaðu]	Pr. [fɔ́ːɾu] O.Fr [fwɛr] Fr. [fyʁ] 'extent' Sp. [fweɾo] 'law' Rom. [for] 'plaza'
framea	type of sword	gladius bisacutus	Bisacutus is LL for 'double-edged', from CL bis 'twice' + acutus 'sharpened'.	Pr. [bɪsakúːta] Fr. [bəzɛɡy_ə] 'carpenter's tool with two sides' It. [bizakuːta] 'double-edged'	—
furent[lower-greek 7]	they steal	involent	CL involant 'they carry off'.	Pr. [ɪ́nvolant] O.Fr [emblənt] O.Oc [emblan] Ct. [embɫən]	Pr. [fúːɾant] It. [fuːɾano] Rm. [furə]
furent[lower-greek 7]	they steal	involent	CL involant 'they carry off'.	Pr. [ɪnvóːlant] It. [invoːlano]	Pr. [fúːɾant] It. [fuːɾano] Rm. [furə]
furvus	brown	brunus	Frankish *brūn.	O.Fr [brun]^acc Fr. [bʁœ̃] Oc. [bɾy] Ct. [bɾu] Rs. [bryn] It. [bruːno] Dl. [brojn] Sp. [bɾuno] Po. [bɾunu]	—
fusiles	melted	fundutas	Romance past participle[20] of CL fundere 'melt'.	Pr. [fʊndúːtas] O.Fr [fonduðəs] Fr. [fɔ̃dy_ə] Oc. [fundyðɔs] O.It [fonduːte] 'melted'
fusiles	melted	fundutas	Romance past participle[20] of CL fundere 'melt'.	Pr. [fʊndíːtas] Sp. [undiðas] 'collapsed' Po. [fũndiðɐʃ] 'smelted'
galea	helmet	helmus	Frankish *helm.	O.Fr [hɛlmə]^acc Fr. [om_ə] It. [elmo] Sp. [ɟʝelmo] Po. [ɛlmu]
genuit	she bore	generavit	CL synonym with more regular conjugations.	Pr. [_ɪŋɡenerá_wt] O.Fr [_eŋdʒendraθ] Fr. [ɑ̃ʒɑ̃dʁa] Ct. [əɲʒəndɾa] Sp. [eŋxendɾo] Po. [ʒɨɾow]
gratia	thanks	merces	CL for 'goods, wages'.	Pr. [meɾkéːðe] O.Fr [mertsiθ] Fr. [mɛχsi] Oc. [meɾse] O.It [mertʃeː] 'thanks, mercy' It. [mertʃeːde] Sp. [meɾθeð] Po. [mɨɾse] 'mercy'
abenas[lower-greek 8]	reins	retinacula iumentorum	Periphrase, 'reins for pack animals'. Retinacula is akin to Pr. retinas, both derived from retinere 'hold back'.	Pr. [rɛ́ːtɪnas] O.Fr. [rɛðnəs][21] Fr. [ʁɛn_ə.z] Oc. [rennos] Ct. [rɛŋnəs] It. [rɛːdine] Sp. [rjendas] Po. [ʁɛðjɐʃ]
abenas[lower-greek 8]	reins	retinacula iumentorum		Pr. [ɟumɛ́ntu] O.Fr [dʒument] Fr. [ʒymɑ̃] 'mare' O.It [dʒumento] Sp. [xumento] Po. [ʒumẽntu] 'pack animal'
arundine[lower-greek 9]	reed	ros	Frankish *rausa.	O.Fr [ros] Oc. [raws]
arundine[lower-greek 9]	reed	ros	Frankish *rausa.	O.Fr. [roˈzɛl]^dim Fr. [ʁozo]
ebitatum[lower-greek 10]	weakened	bulcatum	Pr. verb based on CL bullire 'bubble, boil'.	Pr. [bʊɭɭɪkáːtu] O.Fr [boldʒjæθ] Fr. [buʒe] Oc. [buleɣat] Ct. [bəʎuɣat] 'moved, agitated' It. [bulikaːto] 'boiled'
iacinctinas[lower-greek 11]	hyacinth-colored	persas	Ultimately from Persia, perhaps because garments imported from there had this color.	Fr. [pɛχs_ə] 'blue-green'	Pr. [ɟakíntu] Fr. [ʒasɛ̃t_ə]^femOc. [dʒasin]Ct. [ʒəsin_t]
hiems	winter	ibernus	Hibernum was a CL synonym	Pr. [i_nβɛ́ɾnʊs]^nom O.Fr [ivɛrs] O.Oc iverns	—
hiems	winter	ibernus	Hibernum was a CL synonym	Pr. [i_nβɛ́ɾnu]^acc O.Fr [ivɛr_n] Fr. [ivɛʁ] Oc. [iβɛɾ_n] Ct. [iβɛɾn] Rs. inviern Dl. [invjarna]^fem It. [iɱvɛrno] Sd. [iβerru] Sp. [imbjeɾno] Po. [ĩmbɛɾnu] Rm. [jarnə]^fem	—
horreis	granaries	spicariis	CL spica 'ear of grain' with locational suffix -arium.	Pr. [_ɪspikáːɾ^ju] O.Wal spir[22] 'provisions Gm. [ʃpaɪçɐ] granary'	Pr. [ɔ́rr^ju] Ct. [ɔri] It. dial orrio Sd. orriu Ast. orru
iacere	to throw	iactare	CL freq. of iacere.	Pr. [ɟektáːɾe] O.Fr [dʒətær] Fr. [ʒəte] Oc. [dʒeta] Ct. [ʒita] It. [dʒettaːɾe] Sd. [gɛtaːɾe] Sp. [etʃaɾ]	—
ictus	strike	colpus	CL borrowing of Greek κόλαφος.	Pr. [kɔ́lpʊs]^nom O.Fr [kɔls]	Pr. [ɪktu]^acc Po. [ɐjtu] 'row'
ictus	strike	colpus	CL borrowing of Greek κόλαφος.	Pr. [kɔ́lpu]^acc O.Fr [kɔlp] Fr. [ku] Oc. [kɔp] Ct. [kɔlp] It. [kolpo]	Pr. [ɪktu]^acc Po. [ɐjtu] 'row'
id	this	hoc	Contextual CL synonym	Pr. [ɔ́k] O.Fr [ɔk] 'this' Oc. [ɔk] O.Ct [ɔk] 'yes'	—
iecore	liver	ficato	CL ficatum 'fig-fattened liver', calqued from Greek συκωτόν.[23]	Pr. [fɪ́katu] Fr. [fwa_ə] It. [feːɡato]
				Pr. [fikáːtu] Fri. [fiaːt] Rm. [fikat]
				Pr. [fíːkatu] Rs. fio Sd. [fiːɣaðu] Sp. [iɣaðo] Po. [fiɣɐðu]
				Pr. [fɪ́taku][24] Oc. [fedʒe] Ct. [fedʒə]
in caminum	into the furnace	in clibanum	This word didn't survive anywhere in Romance, however it has already been defined earlier in this glossary as furnus.	—	Pr. [kamíːnu] Rs. chamin Dl. [kamajn] It. [kamiːno]
in caminum	into the furnace	in clibanum		—	Pr. [kamɪnáːta] O.Fr [tʃəminæðə][lower-roman 9] Fr. [ʃəmine_ə] Oc. dial. [tsaminadɔ] 'fireplace, chimney'
indutus	dressed	vestitus	CL synonym.	Pr. [βestíːtu]^acc O.Fr [vestiθ] Oc. [bestit] Ct. [bəstit] Dl. [vestjat] Lom. [vestiː] It. [vestiːto] Sd. [bestiːðu] Sp. [bestiðo] Po. [vɨʃtiðu]	—
indutus	dressed	vestitus	CL synonym.	Pr. [βestútu]^acc O.Fr [vestuθ] Fr. [vɛty] O.It [vestuːto]
institis	bandages	fasciolis	CL synonym.	Pr. [fascɔ́ːlas] O.It [faʃʃwɔːle] Rm. [fɨʃio̯are]
institis	bandages	nasculis	Frankish *nastila.	O.Fr [nasləs]
insultaret	that he offend	inganaret	Romance verb based on CL gannire 'to snarl'.	Pr. [ɪŋgannáːɾe] O.Fr [eŋdʒanær] Oc. [eŋɡana] Ct. [əŋgəɲa] It. [iŋgannaːɾe] Sp. [eŋɡaɲaɾ] Rm. [ɨŋgɨnare]
isset	he would have gone	ambulasset	Could mean 'go' in CL, but isset was the more usual word.	Pr. [amblásset] O.Fr [alast] Fr. [ala_t] It. [ambjasse] Sp. [amblase] Rm. [umblase]	Pr. [ɟísset] Lad. jissa Rm. [ise]
isset	he would have gone	ambulasset	Could mean 'go' in CL, but isset was the more usual word.		Pr. [ɟíːɾe]^inf Fr. [iʁ][lower-roman 10] O.Oc [iɾ] O.Ct [iɾ] Rs. [ir] O.It [dʒiːre] Dl. [dzer] Sp. [iɾ] Po. [iɾ] Rm [iː]
ita	yes	sic	CL synonym.	Pr. [síː] Fr. [si] 'actually, yes' Ct. [si] Rs. [ʃi] It. [si] Sp. [si] Po. [sĩ][lower-roman 11] 'yes' Rm. [ʃi] 'and'	—
iuger	acre	jornalis	CL diurnalis 'that which pertains to a day'. In France this term developed the sense of 'land that can be worked by oxen in a day'.	Pr. [ɟʊrnáːle] O.Fr [dʒornal] 'journal, measure of land' Fr. [ʒuʁnal][lower-roman 12] Oc. [dʒuɾnal] It. [dʒornaːle] 'journal'	—
iugulate	kill them	occidite	CL synonym	See necetur.	Pr. [ɟʊgláːtɪs] Rm. [ʒungiats]
ius	law	legem	CL synonym	Pr. [léːɣe] O.Fr [lej] Fr. [lwa] Oc. [lej] Ct. [ʎɛj] Dl. [lig] It. [leddʒe] Sp. [lej] Po. [lej]	Pr. [ɟúːɾe] It. [dʒuɾe] O.Sp [ʒuɾ] O.Po [ʒuɾ]
ius	law	potestatem	CL for 'power, authority'.	Pr. [potestáːte] O.Fr [poðestæθ] O.Oc poestat O.It [podestaːde] It. [podeˈsta]	Pr. [ɟúːɾe] It. [dʒuɾe] O.Sp [ʒuɾ] O.Po [ʒuɾ]
labium[lower-greek 12]	tub	conca	Could designate a sort of vessel in CL, but the main sense was 'shell'. Borrowed from Greek κόγχη.	Pr. [kɔ́ŋka] Fr. [kɔ̃ʃ_ə] It. [koŋka] Sp. [kweŋka] 'basin, watershed'	—
lamento	I wail	ploro	CL for 'I weep'.	Pr. [plóːɾo] O.Fr [plowr] Fr. [plœʁ] Oc. [pluɾi] Ct. [plɔɾu] O.It [pjoːro] Sp. [ʎoɾo] Po. [ʃɔɾu]
laterum	bricks	teularum	CL tegularum 'roof-tiles'.	Pr. [téːɣʊlas] O.Fr [tiwləs~teʎəs] Fr. [tɥil_ə.z]Oc. [tewlɔs] Ct. [tɛwɫəs] Dl. [tacle] It. [teggje] or [tegole] Sp. [texas] Po. [teʎɐʃ]
lebes	boiler	chaldaria	CL caldarium 'warm bath'.	Pr. [kalðáːɾ^ja] O.Fr [tʃaldjærə] Fr. [ʃodjɛʁ_ə] Oc. [kawðjɛɾɔ] Ct. [kəɫdeɾə] It. [kaldaːja] Dl. [kaldira] Sp. [kaldeɾa] Po. [kaldɐjɾɐ] Rm. [kəldare]
leva	left	sinistra	CL synonym.	Pr. [sɪnɪ́stɾa] Fr. [sənɛstχ_ə] Oc. [senɛstrɔ] O.It [sinestra] Rs. saniestra O.Sp [sinjestɾa] O.Po [sɛʃtɾa]
liberos	children	infantes	CL synonym.	Pr. [ɪ_nfántes] O.Fr [enfants] Fr. [ɑ̃fɑ̃_z] Oc. [efans] Ct. [iɱfans] Rs. uffants 'children' It. [fanti] 'infantry' O.Sp [ifantes] O.Po [ifantes] 'heirs-apparent'
litus	shore	ripa	CL synonym.	Pr. [ríːpa] O.Fr [rivə] Fr. [ʁiv_ə] Oc. [riβɔ] Ct. [riβə] Rs. riva It. [riːva] Dl. [rajpa] Sp. [riβa] Po. [ʁiβɐ] Rm. [rɨpə]	Pr. [líːtu] It. [liːdo]
ludebant	they were playing	jocabant	CL synonym.	Pr. [ɟokáːβant] O.Fr [dʒoˈævənt] Fr. [ʒwɛ_ə.t] Oc. [dʒuɣaβɔn] Ct. [ʒuɣaβən] Rs. giogavan Dl. [dzokua] It. [dʒokaːvano] Sp. [xuɣaβan] Po. [ʒuɣavɐ̃w̃] Rm. [ʒukaw]	—
luto	mud	fecis	CL for 'dregs, sediment'.	Pr. [fɛ́ːkes] It. [fɛtʃi] Sp. [eθes] Po. [fezɨʃ]	Pr. [lʊ́tu] O.Fr [lot] It. [loːto] Sd. [luːðu] Sp. [loðo] Po. [loðu] Rm. [lut]
mala punica	pomegranates	mala granata	Periphrase: 'seeded apples'.	Pr. [máːla ɡranáːta] Oc. [milɣɾanɔ] Ct. [məɣɾanə] It. [melaɡraːna] O.Sp [milɡrana] Sp. [ɡɾanaða] Po. [ɡɾɐnaðɐ]	—
mala punica	pomegranates	mala granata	Periphrase: 'seeded apples'.	Pr. [póːma ɡranáːta] O.Fr [pomə grənadə][lower-roman 13] Fr. [ɡʁənad_ə]
malus	mast	mastus	Frankish *mast.	O.Fr [mast]^acc Fr. [mɑ] Oc. [mast]
manipulos	bundles	garbas	Frankish *garba.	Fr. [ʒɛʁb_ə.z] Oc. [gaɾβos] Ca. [ɡarbəs]	Pr. [manʊ́kli]^nomO.Fr [manoʎ] O.It [manokki] Rm. [mənukʲ]
manipulos	bundles	garbas	Frankish *garba.	Fr. [ʒɛʁb_ə.z] Oc. [gaɾβos] Ca. [ɡarbəs]	Pr. [manʊ́klos]^acc O.Fr [manoʎts] Ct. [mənoʎs] Sp. [manoxos] Po. [mɔʎuʃ]
mares	male livestock	masculi	CL diminutive of mares (singular mas).	Pr. [máskʊli]^nom O.Fr [maslə] It. [maski] Rm. dial [maskurʲ] 'male pigs'	—
mares	male livestock	masculi	CL diminutive of mares (singular mas).	Pr. [máskʊlos]^nom O.Fr [masləs] Fr. [mɑl_ə.z] Oc. [maskles] Ct. [maskləs] Rs. mascels Sd. màschios Sp. [matʃos] Po. [maʃuʃ]
mergulum	diver bird	corvum marinum	Lit. 'sea-crow'.	Pr. [kɔ́ɾβʊ maɾíːnu] Fr. [kɔʁmɔʁɑ̃] Oc. [kɔɾp mari] Ct. [kɔɾp məɾi] Sp. [kweɾβo maɾino] Po. [koɾvu mɐɾiɲu]
milites	soldiers	servientes	CL for servants'.	Pr. [seɾβ^jɛ́ntes] O.Fr [serdʒents] 'servants, sergeants' Fr. [sɛʁʒɑ̃_z] 'sergeants' Oc. [siɾbens] Ct. [səɾβens] Sp. [siɾβjentes] 'servants'
minas	threats	manaces	CL minacia 'menacing' reinterpreted as a fem noun.	Pr. [mɪnáccas] O.Fr [manatsəs] Fr. [mənas_ə.z] Oc. [menasɔs] It. [minatʧe] O.Sp [menatsas] O.Po [mẽatsas]	—
mutuo acceperam	I had borrowed	impruntatum habeo	Prefixed deriv. of CL mutuari. Compound tense construction with habeo is characteristic of Romance.	Pr. [ájo ɪmprumutáːtu] O.Fr [aj empruntæθ] Fr. *[e ɑ̃pχœ̃te] Oc. [aj empɾyntat] Rm. [am ɨmprumutat]
mutuum dare	to lend	prestare	CL for 'provide, furnish'.	Pr. [prestáːɾe] O.Fr [prestær] Fr. [pχɛte] Oc. [pɾesta] Ct. [pɾəsta] It. [prestaːɾe] Sp. [pɾestaɾ] Po. [pɾɨʃtaɾ]
necetur	may he be killed	occidetur	CL synonym. In Romance the sense of necare had changed to 'kill by drowning'.	Pr. [okkíːðeɾe] O.Fr [otsiðrə] Oc. [awsi] It. [uttʃiːdeɾe] Sd. [okkiːðeɾe] Rm. [utʃidere]	Pr. [_annekáːɾe] O.Fr [nejær] Fr. [nwaje] It. [anneɡaːɾe] Sp. [aneɣaɾ] Arm. [nekare]
nemini	to nobody	nulli	CL synonym.	Pr. [núɭɭu] Fr. [nyl] Oc. [nyl] Ct. [nul] It. [nullo] Sic. [nuɖɖu] 'none, futile'	Pr. [néːmɪni] Rm. [nimenʲ]
nent	they weave	filant	Pr. verb based on CL filum 'thread'.	Pr. [fíːlant] O.Fr [filənt] Fr. [fil_ə.t] Oc. [filɔn] Ct. [fiɫən] It. [fiːlano] Sp. [ilan] Po. [fjɐ̃w̃]	—
nonnulli	several	multi	CL synonym.	Pr. [mʊ́lti]^nom O.Fr [molt] It. [molti] Rm. [multsʲ]
nonnulli	several	multi	CL synonym.	Pr. [mʊ́ltos]^acc O.Fr [molts] Ct. [moɫs] Sp. [mutʃos] Po. [mũj̃ntuʃ][lower-roman 14]
non pepercit	he did not spare	non sparniavit	Frankish *sparanjan.	O.Fr [nən esparɲaθ] Fr. *[nepaʁɲa] It. [non sparaɲɲɔ]
novacula	razor	rasorium	CL rasum 'shaved' with instrumental suffix -orium.	Pr. [rasóːɾ^ju] O.Fr [razojr] Fr. [ʁazwaʁ] Oc. [razu] It. [rasoːjo]	Pr. [noβáːkla] Ct. [nəβaʎə] Sp. [naβaxa] Po. [nɐvaʎɐ]
noverca	stepmother	matrastra	CL matrem 'mother' with suffix -astra 'wannabe'.	Pr. [matrástra] Fr. [maʁɑtχ_ə] Oc. [majrastrɔ] Ct. [məðɾastɾə] Sp. [maðɾastɾa] Po. [mɐðɾaʃtɐ]	Pr. [noβɛ́rka] Arm. nuearcã
nosse	to know	scire	More usual CL synonym.	Pr. [_ɪskíːɾe] Sd. [iskire] Rm. [ʃtire]	—
nutare	to wobble	cancellare	CL for 'criss-cross'. The Romance sense developed from the notion of crossing one's legs while walking.	Pr. [kankeɭɭáːɾe] O.Fr [tʃantsəlær] Fr. [ʃɑ̃s_əle]
ocreas	boots	husas	Frankish *hosa.	O.Fr [hwɛzəs] O.It [wɔːse] O.Sp [wesas] O.Po [osas]
offendas	may you drive off	abattas	CL battuas.	Pr. [abbátas] Fr. [abat_ə.z] Oc. [aβatɔs] Ct. [əβatəs] It. [abbatta] Sp. [aβatas] Po. [ɐvatɐʃ]
onager	wild donkey	asinus salvaticus	Asinus is CL for 'donkey'. For salvaticus, see entry for aper.	Pr. [ásɪnʊs]^nom O.Fr [aznəs]
onager	wild donkey	asinus salvaticus		Pr. [ásɪnu]^acc O.Fr [aznə] Fr. [ɑn_ə] Oc. [azne] Ct. [azə] Rs. asen Lig. [aːze] It. [aːsino] Sd. [aːinu] Sp. [azno] Po. [aʒnu] Rm. dial asen
onustus	burdened	carcatus	Romance verb based on CL borrowing of Gaulish *karros.	Pr. [karrɪkáːtʊs]^nom O.Fr [tʃardʒjæts] O.Oc [kaɾgats]
onustus	burdened	carcatus	Romance verb based on CL borrowing of Gaulish *karros.	Pr. [karrɪkáːtu]^acc O.Fr [tʃardʒjæθ] Fr. [ʃaʁʒe] Oc. [kaɾɣat] Ct. [kərəɣat] Dl. [karikuo̯t] It. [kaɾikaːto] Sp. [kaɾɣaðo] Po. [kɐʁɨɣaðu] Rm. [ɨŋkərkat]
oppidis	towns	civitatibus	LL for 'cities'.	Pr. [kiβɪtáːtes] O.Fr [tsitæts] Fr. [site_z] Oc. [siwtats] Ct. [siwtats] Rs. citads O.It [tʃittaːdi] It. [tʃitta] Sp. [θjuðaðes] Po. [siðaðɨʃ] 'cities' Rm. [tʃetətsʲ] 'fortresses'
		castellis	CL for 'fortresses', diminutive of castra.	Pr. [kastɛ́ɭɭi]^nom O.Fr [tʃastɛl] O.Oc [kastɛl] It. [kastɛlli] Sic. [kaʃtɛɖɖi]
		castellis	CL for 'fortresses', diminutive of castra.	Pr. [kastɛ́ɭɭos]^acc O.Fr [tʃastɛls] Fr. [ʃɑto_z] Oc. [kastɛls] Ct. [kəsteʎs] Rs. chastès Sd. [kastɛɖɖɔzɔ] Sp. [kastiʎos] Po. [kɐʃtɛluʃ]
opilio	shepherd	berbicarius	CL ueruex 'ram' with occupational suffix -arius.	Pr. [βeɾβɪkáːɾ^jʊs]^nom O.Fr [berdʒjærs]
				Pr. [βeɾβɪkáːɾ^ju]^acc O.Fr [berdʒjær] Fr. [bɛʁʒe] Oc. dial [baʁdzjej]
				Pr. [βeɾβekáːɾ^ju] Sd. berbecarju Rm. [berbekar]
oportet	it is fitting	convenit	Had this sense in CL as well.	Pr. [komβɛ́ːnɪt] O.Fr [konvjɛnt] Fr. [kɔ̃vjɛ̃_t] Oc. [kumben] Ct. [kumbe] It. [koɱvjɛːne] Sp. [kombjene] Po. [kõvɐ̃j̃] Rm. [kuvine]
optimos	the best	meliores	CL for 'better'. In Romance it also came to mean 'best'.	Pr. [meʎʎóːɾes] O.Fr [meʎowrs] Fr. [mɛjœʁ_z] Oc. [meʎus] Ct. [miʎos] Rs. megliers It. [miʎʎoːɾi] Sp. [mexoɾes] Po. [mɨʎɔɾɨʃ]
optimum	the best	valde bonum	Lit. 'very good'. Valde survived as the first element of O.Fr vaudoux and vaupute.[29]	Pr. [bɔ́ːnu] O.Fr [bwɛn] Fr. [bɔ̃] Oc. [bun] Ct. [bɔ] Rs. [bun] Dl. [bun] It. [bwɔːno] Sp. [bweno] Po. [bõ] Rm. [bun]
ore	mouth	bucca	CL for 'cheek'.	Pr. [bʊ́kka] O.Fr [botʃə] Fr. [buʃ_ə] Oc. [bukɔ] Ct. [bokə] Rs. [bɔkə] Dl. [buka] It. [bokka] Sp. [boka] Po. [bokɐ] 'mouth' Rm. [bukə] 'cheek'
ostendit	he showed	monstravit	CL synonym.	Pr. [mostɾá_wt] O.Fr [mostraθ] Fr. [mɔ̃tχa][lower-roman 15] Ct. [mustɾa] It. [mostrɔ] Sp. [mostɾo] Po. [muʃtɾow] Rm. [mustrə]
oves	sheep	berbices	CL vervex 'castrated ram'.	Pr. [βeɾβíːkes] O.Fr [berbits] Fr. [bʁəbi_z] O.Oc berbitz O.It [berbiːtʃi]	Pr. [ɔ́ːβes] Rm. [oj]
oves	sheep	berbices	CL vervex 'castrated ram'.	Pr. [βeɾβéːkes] Sd. [baɾβɛɣɛzɛ] Rm. [beɾbetʃʲ]	Pr. [oβɪ́klas]^dim O.Fr [oˈeʎəs] Fr. [waj_ə.z] Oc. [uˈeʎɔs] or dial [awvejaː] Ct. [uβɛʎəs] Sp. [oβexas] Po. [ɔvɐʎɐʃ]
paliurus	Christ's thorn	cardonis	From CL cardus 'thistle'.	Pr. [kaɾðóːne] O.Fr [tʃardon]^acc Fr. [ʃaʁdɔ̃] Oc. [kaɾðu]	—
pallium	cloak	drappum	Frankish *drāpi.	O.Fr [drap] Fr. [dʁa] Oc. [dɾap] Ct. [dɾap] Dl. [drap] It. [drappo] Sd. [dɾapu] Sp. [tɾapo] Po. [tɾapu]	—
papilionis	tent	travis	Romance nominative based on CL acc trabem 'beam' or 'structure built around a beam'.	Pr. [tráːβɪs]^nom O.Fr [træs]	Pr. [papɪʎʎóːne] O.Fr [paveʎon] 'butterfly, pavilion' Fr. [pavijɔ̃] Oc. [paβaʎu] It. [padiʎʎɔne] Sp. [paβeʎon] 'pavilion' Fr. [papijɔ̃][lower-roman 16] Oc. [paɾpaʎu] Ct. [pəpəʎo_nə] O.It [parpaʎʎoːne] 'butterfly'
papilionis	tent	travis		Pr. [tráːβe]^acc O.Fr [træf] 'tent, beam' O.Oc [traw] It. [traːve] Po. [tɾavɨ]
pabula[lower-greek 13]	blister	visica	Vesica could have this meaning in CL as well, but its main sense was 'bladder'.	Pr. [βessíːka] Fr. [vesi_ə] Oc. [besiɣo] Ct. [bəʃiɣə] It. [veʃʃiːka] Sp. [bexiɣa] Po. [bɨʃiɣɐ] Rm. [bəʃikə] 'blister, bladder'	—
paria	alike	similia	Contextual CL synonym.	Pr. [sɪmɪláːɾe]^verb O.Fr [semblær] Fr. [sɑ̃ble] Oc. [sembla] Ct. [səmbɫa] Rm. [semənare] 'resemble'	Pr. [páːɾ^ja] O.Fr [pajrə] Fr. [pɛʁ_ə] It. [paja] 'pair(s)'
paria	alike	similia	Contextual CL synonym.	Pr. [sɪmɪʎʎáːɾe] It. [somiʎʎaːɾe] Sp. [semexaɾ] Po. [sɨmɨʎaɾ] 'resemble'
pera	bag	sportellam	CL diminutive of sporta 'basket'.	Pr. [_ɪsportɛ́ɭɭa] O.Oc esportella O.It sportella Sp. [espoɾtiʎa]	—
peribet	he bears	perportat	The context is Ioannes testimonium perhibet.	Fr. il porte témoignage It. porta testimonianza
pes	foot	pedis	Romance nominative based on CL accusative form pedem.	Pr. [pɛ́ːðɪs]^nom O.Fr [pjɛts] O.Oc [pɛs]
pes	foot	pedis	Romance nominative based on CL accusative form pedem.	Pr. [pɛ́ːðe]^acc O.Fr [pjɛθ] Fr. [pje] Oc. [pɛ] Ct. [pɛw] Rs. [pɛ] Lom. [pɛ] It. [pjɛːde] Dl. [pi] Sp. [pje] Po. [pɛ] Sd. [pɛi] O.Rm piez
pignus	pledge	wadius	Frankish *waddi.	O.Fr [gwadʒə] Fr. [ɡaʒ_ə] Oc. [gadʒe] 'will, testament'	Pr. [pɪ́ɣnu] Rs. pegn It. [peɲɲo]
					Pr. [pɪ́ɣnoɾa] Sp. [pɾenda]
					Pr. [pɪɣnóːɾe] Po. [peɲoɾ]
pingues	fat	grassi	CL crassi.	Pr. [ɡɾássi]^nom O.Fr [gras] It. [ɡɾassi] Rm. [ɡraʃʲ]	—
pingues	fat	grassi	CL crassi.	Pr. [ɡɾássos]^acc O.Fr [gras] Fr. [ɡʁɑ] Ct. [ɡɾasus] Rs. [gras] Dl. [gres] Sd. [ɡɾassɔzɔ] Sp. [ɡɾasos] Po. [ɡɾaʃuʃ]
plaustra	carts	carra	Gaulish *karros.	Pr. [kárri]^nom O.Fr [tʃar] It. [karri] Rm. [kare]
plaustra	carts	carra	Gaulish *karros.	Pr. [kárros]^acc O.Fr [tʃars] Fr. [ʃaʁ_z] Oc. [karis] Ct. [karus] Sp. [karos] Po. [kaʁuʃ]
pulempta[lower-greek 14]	barley	farina	CL for 'flour'.	Pr. [faríːna] Fr. [faʁin_ə] Oc. [faɾinɔ] Ct. [fəɾinə] Rs. farina It. [fariːna] Dl. [farajna] Sp. [aɾina] Po. [fɐɾiɲɐ] Rm. [fəinə]	Pr. [polɛ́nta] Dl. [puljanta] It. [polɛnta]
pupillam	pupil	nigrum in oculo	Periphrase, 'the black in an eye'.	Fr. le noir de l'œil	—
ponatur	may it be placed	mittatur	CL mittere 'send' came to mean 'put' in LL.	Pr. [mɪ́tteɾe] O.Fr [metrə] Fr. [mɛtχ_ə] Oc. [metɾe] Ct. [mɛtɾə] It. [metteɾe] Sd. [mintɛɾɛ] Sp. [meˈteɾ] Po. [mɨˈteɾ]	Pr. [póːneɾe] O.Fr [pondɾə] Fr. [pɔ̃dʁ_ə] Oc. [pundɾe] Ct. [pɔndɾə] 'lay an egg' It. [porre] Sp. [poˈneɾ] Po. [poɾ] Rm. [punere] 'put, place'
ponderatus	burdened	graviatus	Pr. verb based on CL gravis 'heavy, burdened'.	Pr. [graβ^jáːtus] O.Fr [grədʒjæts]	—
poplite	ham of the knee	juncture janiculorum	Periphrase, 'junctions of the knees'. Janiculorum is an attempt to spell CL geniculorum.	Pr. [ɟuntúːɾas] Fr. [ʒwɛ̃tyʁ_ə.z] Oc. [dʒuntʃyrɔs] Ct. [ʒuntuɾəs] It. [dʒuntuːɾe] Sp. [xuntuɾas] Po. [ʒũntuɾɐʃ]
				Pr. [genʊ́kli]^nomO.Fr [dʒənoʎ]Dl. zenakleIt. [dʒinɔkki]Rm. [dʒenunkʲ]
				Pr. [genʊ́klos]^acc O.Fr [dʒənoʎts] Fr. [ʒənu_z] Oc. [dʒenuls] Ct. [ʒənoʎs] Rm. schanugls Sd. [ɡenuːɣɾɔzɔ] Sp. [inoxos] Po. [ʒwɐʎuʃ]
pruina	frost	gelata	CL gel- 'freeze' with Romance noun-forming suffix -ata.	Pr. [geláːta] O.Fr [dʒəlæðə] Fr. [ʒəle_ə] Oc. [dʒelaðɔ] Ct. [ʒəɫaðə] It. [dʒelaːta] Sp. [elaða] Po. [ʒjaðɐ]	Pr. [pɾʊíːna] O.Fr [broˈinə] Fr. [bʁɥin_ə] 'drizzle' O.Oc bruina It. [briːna] 'frost'
pugione	dagger	lancea	CL for 'spear'. The glosser may have had in mind O.Fr lancete 'small pointed instrument'.	Pr. [lánca] O.Fr [lantsə] Fr. [lɑ̃s_ə] Oc. [lansɔ] Ct. [ʎansə] It. [lantʃa] Sd. [laθa] Sp. [lanθa] Po. [lɐ̃sɐ]	—
pulchra	beautiful	bella	CL synonym.	Pr. [bɛ́ɭɭa] O.Fr [bɛlə] Fr. [bɛl_ə] Oc. [bɛlɔ] Ct. [beʎə] Rs. bella Lom. [bɛlɐ] It. [bɛlla] Sic. [bɛɖɖa] Dl. [bjala] Sp. [beʎa] Po. [bɛlɐ]	—
pusillum	small	parvum	CL synonym.	Pr. [páɾβu] O.Fr [parf] Po. [paɾvu] 'small'
pusillum	small	parvum	CL synonym.	Pr. [páɾβʊlu]^dimO.It [parvolo] It. [pargolo] 'boy'
pustula	blister	malis clavis[lower-greek 15]	CL clavus had this sense as well, although its main meaning was 'nail'.	Pr. [kláːβu] O.Fr [klɔw] Fr. [klu] 'nail, pustule' O.Oc [klaw][lower-roman 17] Ct. [klaw] O.It [kjaːvo][upper-roman 3] Sp. [klaβo] Po. [kɾavu] 'nail'
regit	he rules	gubernat	CL synonym borrowed from Greek κῠβερνᾰ́ειν.	Pr. [gʊβɛ́ɾnat] O.Fr [govɛrnəθ] Fr. [guvɛʁn_ə] Oc. [ɡuβɛɾnɔ] Ct. [guβɛrnə] It. [govɛrna] Sp. [ɡoβjeɾna] Po. [ɡuveɾnɐ]	Pr. [réːɣɪt] It. [rɛddʒe]
remetieur	he shall remeasure	remensurabit	Verb based on CL mensura 'measure'.	Pr. [mesuráːɾe] O.Fr [məzurær] Fr. [məzyʁe] Oc. [mezyɾa] Ct. [məzuɾa] Rs. mesirar It. [misuraːɾe] Sp. [mesuɾaɾ] Po. [mɨzuɾaɾ] Rm. [məsurare]	Pr. [metíːɾe] Sd. [meðiɾɛ] Sp. [meðiɾ] Po. [mɨðiɾ]
repente	suddenly	subito	CL synonym.	Pr. [sú:βɪto] O.Fr [sups][upper-roman 4] Oc. [sytte] Ct. [soptə]	—
repente	suddenly	subito	CL synonym.	Pr. [suβɪtá:nu] O.Fr [sodejn] Fr. [sudɛ̃]
reppererunt	they found	invenerunt	CL synonym.	O.Fr *envindrent[upper-roman 5]
res	thing	causa	CL for 'subject matter'.	Pr. [káwsa] O.Fr [tʃozə] Fr. [ʃoz_ə] Oc. [kawzɔ] Ct. [kɔzə] Rs. chossa It. [kɔːsa] Dl. [kawsa] O.Sd [kasa] Sp. [kosa] Po. [kowza]	Pr. [rɛ́s] Oc. [res] Ct. [rɛs] 'nothing'
res	thing	causa	CL for 'subject matter'.		Pr. [rɛ́ːne] O.Fr [rjɛn] 'thing' Fr. [ʁjɛ̃] Oc. dial. ren O.Po ren 'nothing'
respectant	they look back	rewardant	Frankish *wardōn 'watch over, protect'.	O.Fr [rəgwardənt] Fr. [ʁəɡaʁd_ə.t] Oc. [ɡwaɾðan] Ct. [ɡwaɾðən] Rs. vurdan It. [rigwardano] Sp. [gwaɾðan] Po. [ɡwaɾðɐ̃w̃]	Pr. [respɛ́ktant] It. [rispɛttano] Po. [ʁɨʃpɐjtɐ̃w̃] 'they respect'
restant	they stay	remanent	CL synonym	Pr. [remáːnent] O.Fr [rəmajnənt]	—
reus	guilty	culpabilis	LL synonym composed of culpa 'blame' and -abilis 'worthy of'.	Pr. [kʊlpáːβɪle] O.Fr [kolpablə] Fr. [kupabl_ə] Oc. [kulpable] It. [kolpeːvole] 'guilty'	Pr. [ríu] It. [riːo] Dl. [ri] Rm. [rəw] 'bad, evil'
reveretur	he fears	verecundatur	CL for 'he feels shame'.	Pr. [veɾɣʊ́ndat] O.Fr [vergondəθ]	—
rostrum	beak	beccus	CL borrowing of Gaulish *bekkos.	Pr. [bɛ́kkʊs] O.Fr [bɛs]	Pr. [róstru] Rm. [rost] 'mouth'
rostrum	beak	beccus	CL borrowing of Gaulish *bekkos.	Pr. [bɛ́kku] O.Fr [bɛk] Fr. [bɛk] Oc. [bɛk] Ct. [bɛk] It. [bekko] Sp. [piko] Po. [biku]	Pr. [róstru] Rm. [rost] 'mouth'
rufa	reddish	sora	Frankish *saur.	Fr. [sɔʁ_ə] 'smoked' Oc. [sawɾɔ] 'yellow' Ca. [sawɾə] 'dark yellow'	—
ruga	wrinkle	fruncetura	Frankish *hrunkja with Romance suffix -tura.	O.Fr [frontsəˈðurə] Fr. [fʁɔ̃syʁ_ə] Ct. [fɾunsiˈðuɾə]	Pr. [rúːɣa] O.Fr [ruə] Fr. [ʁy_ə] Oc. dial [ryɔ] 'street' It. [ruga] 'wrinkle' Arm. rugã 'sheep-gate'
rupem	rock	petram	CL borrowing from Greek πέτρα.	Pr. [pɛ́ːtɾa] O.Fr [pjɛðrə] Fr. [pjɛr_ə] Oc. [pɛjɾɔ] Ct. [peðɾə] Dl. [pitra] It. [pjɛtra] Sp. [pjeðɾa] Po. [pɛðɾɐ] Rm. [pjatrə]	Pr. [rúːpe] It. [ruːpe] 'cliff'
saga	a covering	cortina	LL for 'curtain', from an earlier CL term for a type of cauldron. The sense evolution is unclear.	Pr. [koɾtíːna] Fr. [kuχtin_ə] Oc. [kuɾtinɔ] Ct. [kurtinə] It. [kortina] Sp. [koɾtina] O.Po [koɾtiɲa][upper-roman 6] 'curtain'	Pr. [sáːɣa] Fr. [sɛ_ə] O.Sp [saja] Po. [sajɐ] 'skirt'
sagma	packsaddle	soma	The same word after a number of Romance developments. Attested as salma in Isidore.	Pr. [sálma] Fr. [sɔm_ə] 'packsaddle' Oc. [sawmɔ] 'female donkey' Ct. [saɫmə] 'ton' It. [soma] 'load' or [salma] 'corpse'	—
sagma	packsaddle	sella	CL synonym	Pr. [sɛ́ɭɭa] Fr. [sɛl_ə] Oc. [sɛlɔ] Ct. [seʎə] Dl. [sjala] It. [sɛlla] Sd. [sɛɖɖa] Sic. [sɛɖɖa] Sp. [siʎa] Po. [sɛlɐ] Rm. [ʃa] 'saddle'
saniore	healthier	plus sano	Periphrase, 'more healthy'. Synthetic construction typical of Romance.	Pr. [plus sáːnu] O.Fr [plus sajn] Fr. [ply sɛ̃] Oc. [pys sa] It. [pjus.saːno] Sd. [pɾus sannu]
sarcina	package	bisatia	CL bisaccium 'double-sack'.	Pr. [bɪsácca] Fr. [bəzas_ə] Oc. [bjasɔ] It. [bizattʃa]	Pr. [sáɾkɪna] Rm. [sartʃinə] Arm. sartsinã
sartago	pan	patella	CL synonym	Pr. [patɛ́ɭɭa] O.Fr [paðɛlə] Fr. [pwɑl_ə] Oc. [paðɛlɔ] Ct. [pəeʎə] Rs. padella It. [padɛlla] Sic. [parɛɖɖa] Sp. [paila]	Pr. [saɾtáːɣɪne] Oc. [saɾtaŋ] Sp. [saɾten] Po. [sɨɾtɐ̃]
scinifes	gnats	cincellas	Likely onomatopoeic.	Pr. [ts^jints^jáːlas] O.Fr [tsintsæləs] It. [dzandzaːɾe] Ven. [zʤiŋsae] Rm. [tsɨntsarʲ]^masc	—
segetes	crops	messes	CL synonym	Pr. [mɛ́sses] It. [mɛssi] Sp. [mjeses] Po. [mesɨʃ]
segetes	crops	messes	CL synonym	Pr. [mess^jóːnes] O.Fr [mejsons] Fr. [mwasɔ̃_z] Oc. [mejsus]
semel	once	una vice	Romance periphrase: 'one time', from CL vice 'turn, instance'.	Pr. [una βɪ́ke] O.Fr [unə fejts][upper-roman 7] Fr. [yn_ə fwa] Oc. [ynɔ βets] Sp. [una βeθ] Po. [umɐ veʃ]
sepulta	interred	sepelita	Rare CL variant.	Pr. [_ɪnsepelíːta] O.Fr [_ensəvəliðə] Fr. [ɑ̃səv_əli_ə] Oc. [seβeliðɔ] It. [seppelliːta]	Pr. [sepʊ́lta] Dl. [sepwalta] It. [sepolta]^lit
sindone	type of cloth	linciolo	CL. linteolum 'linen cloth'.	Pr. [lints^jɔ́ːlu] O.Fr [lintswɛl] Fr. [lɛ̃sœl] Oc. [lensɔl] Ct. [ʎənsɔɫ] Rs. lenziel Dl. [lentsul] It. [lentswɔːlo] Sd. [leθolu] Sp. [lenθwelo] Po. [lẽsɔɫ] Rm. lințoliu	Pr. [sindóːne] It. [sindoːne]
singulariter	alone	solamente	Romance grammaticalization of CL ablative absolutes such as sollicita mente 'assiduously'.	Pr. [solamɛ́nte] O.Fr [soləment] Fr. [sœl_əmɑ̃] Oc. [sulɔmen] Ct. [soləmen] It. [solamente] Sp. [solamente] Po. [sɔmẽntɨ]	—
si vis	if you wish	si voles	Pr. voles was constructed from such CL conjugations as volunt 'they wish'.[33]	Pr. [si βɔ́ːles] O.Fr [si vwɛls] Fr. [si vø_z] Oc. [se βɔles] Ct. [si βɔls] Rs. sche vuls* Dl. [se bule] It. [sev.vwɔi]	—
solutis	set free, absolved	disligatis	Negating prefix dis applied to CL ligare 'link, join'.	Pr. [dɪslɪɣáːtos] O.Fr [desljæts] Fr. [delje] Oc. [desliɣats] Ct. [dəzʎiɣats] Sp. [desliɣaðos] Po. [desliɣaðuʃ]	Pr. [solúːtos]^acc O.Fr [soluts] O.Oc [soluts] 'resolved, paid'
				Pr. [dɪslɪɣáːti] It. [sligaːti] Rm. [dezlegats^j]	Pr. [sɔ́ltos]^acc O.Fr [sɔlts] O.Ct [sɔlts] 'resolved, paid' Sp. [sweltos] Po. [soɫtuʃ] 'loose, free'
				Pr. [dɪslɪɣáːti] It. [sligaːti] Rm. [dezlegats^j]	Pr. [sɔ́lti]^nom It. [sɔlti] 'released'
sortileus	fortune teller	sorcerus	CL sorte 'fortune' with occupational suffix -arius.	Pr. [sorts^jáːɾ^ju]^acc O.Fr [sortsjær] Fr. [sɔχsje]	—
spatula	palm frond	rama palmarum	Periphrase, 'palm-tree branch'. Rama comes from the Pr. collective form[34] of CL ramus 'branch'.	Pr. [ráːma] O.Fr [rajmə] Fr. [ʁam_ə][upper-roman 8] O.Oc [rama] Ct. [ramə] Sp. [rama] 'branch'
spatula	palm frond	rama palmarum		Pr. [pálmas] O.Fr [palməs] Fr. [pom_ə.z] Oc. [pawmɔs] Ct. [paɫməs] Dl. [puo̯lme] It. [palme] Sd. [paɾmas] Sp. [palmas] Po. [paɫmɐʃ] Rm. [palme]
stercora	excrements	femus	CL fimus, a synonym.	Pr. [fɛ́ːmʊs] O.Fr [fjɛns] Oc. [fens] Ct. [fem]	Pr. [_ɪstɛ́ɾku] It. [stɛrko] Po. [iʃteɾku] Rm. [ʃterk]
stercora	excrements	femus	CL fimus, a synonym.	Pr. [fɛ́ːmʊs] O.Fr [fjɛns] Oc. [fens] Ct. [fem]	Pr. [_ɪstɛ́ɾkoɾe] Sp. [estjeɾkol]
submersi	drowned	necati	CL for 'murdered'.	See necetur.	Pr. [sʊmmɛ́rsi] It. [sommɛrsi]
subtilissima	very thin	perpittita	Of unknown origin. Per is a CL intensifying prefix.	Pr. [pɪttíːta] Fr. [pətit_ə]	Pr. [sʊptíːle] O.Fr [sotil] O.Oc sotil O.Ct sotil It. [sottiːle] Sd. [ˈsuttilɛ] Rm. [suptsire]
succendunt	they set ablaze	sprendunt	CL prendunt 'they seize' with prefix ex.	Pr. [espɾɛ́ndʊnt] O.Fr [esprɛnənt] Fr. [epχɛn_ə.t]	—
sudario	priest's gown	fanonem	Frankish *fano. The original sense of sudarium was 'sweat-cloth', composed of sudor 'sweat' and locational suffix -ario.	O.Fr [faˈnon] Fr. [fanɔ̃] 'papal gown'	Pr. [suðaɾ^jɔ́ːlu]^dim Dl. [sedarul] 'handkerchief'
sulcis	furrows	rige	Gaulish *rica.	O.Fr [ˈrejəs] Fr. [ʁɛ_ə.z] Oc. [reɣos]	Pr. [sʊ́lki]^nomIt. [solki] O.Rm [sulk^j]
sulcis	furrows	rige	Gaulish *rica.	O.Fr [ˈrejəs] Fr. [ʁɛ_ə.z] Oc. [reɣos]	Pr. [sʊ́lcos]^accCt. [soɫks] Sd. [suɾkɔzɔ] Sp. [suɾkos] Po. [sukuʃ]
sus	pig	porcus	CL synonym.	See entry for aper.	Sd. sue
talpas	moles	muli	Frankish *mul.	O.Fr [muˈlot]^dim Fr. [mylo] 'field mouse'	Pr. [tálpa] O.Fr [talpə] Fr. [top_ə] Oc. [talpɔ] Ct. [taɫp]^masc It. [talpa] Gal. [towpa] Sp. [topo]^masc Po. dial toupa[upper-roman 9]
tectum	roof	solarium	CL for 'roof-terrace'. Sol 'sun' with locational suffix -arium.	Pr. [soláːɾ^ju] O.Fr [soljær] Fr. dial. [sɔlje] Oc. [sulɛ] 'loft'	Pr. [téktu] O.Fr [tejt] Fr. [twa] Oc. [tetʃ] or [te_t] Rs. tetg Dl. [tjat] It. [tetto] Sp. [tetʃo] Po. [tɛtu]
tedet	it annoys	anoget	The ⟨g⟩ represents /j/.[36] The scribe has failed to Latinize the spelling to inodiat, a Romance verb derived from CL odium 'hate'.	Pr. [ɪnɔ́ːjat] O.Fr [anujəθ] Fr. [ɑ̃nɥi_ə] Oc. [anydʒɔ] Ct. [ənudʒə] Sp. [enoxa] Po. [inoʒɐ]	—
tedio	monotony	tepiditas	Noun version of CL tepidum 'lukewarm'.	Pr. [tɛ́ːpɪðu] O.Fr [tjɛvə] Fr. [tjɛd_ə] Oc. [tɛβi] Ct. [tɛβi] It. [tjɛːpido] Sp. [tiβjo] Po. [tiβju] 'lukewarm'
tereo[lower-greek 16]	I thresh	tribulo	Verb based on CL tribulum 'threshing-board', itself composed of tero and the instrumental suffix -bulum.	Pr. [tɾíβlo] O.Fr [triblə~triwlə] Ct. [tɾiʎu] It. [tribbjo] Sd. triulo Sp. [tɾiʎo] Po. [tɾiʎu]
teristrum	veil	cufia	Frankish *kuffja.	O.Fr cofie Fr. [kwaf_ə] O.Oc kofa
teristrum	veil	vitta	CL for 'headband'.	Pr. [βɪ́tta] O.Fr [vetə] Ct. [bɛtə] It. [vetta] Sp. [beta] Po. [fitɐ] Rm. [batə]
torax	cuirass	brunia	Frankish *brunnia.	O.Fr bronie Fr. [bʁwaɲ_ə] O.Oc bronha
trabem	beam	trastrum	From CL transtrum 'crossbeam'. O.Fr tref < trabem could mean 'tent' as well.	Pr. [tɾástu] O.Fr [trastə] 'crossbeam' Sp. [tɾasto] Po. [tɾaʃtɨ] 'junk'	See mastus.
trabem	beam	trastrum		Pr. [tɾastɛ́ɭɭu]^dim O.Fr [træstel] Fr. [tχeto] 'trestle'	See mastus.
transferent	they will carry over	transportent	CL ferre 'carry' was displaced in Romance by portare, originally a less common synonym.	Pr. [tɾaspɔ́ɾtant] O.Fr [trespɔrtənt] O.It [trapɔrtano]	—
transgredere	go past	ultra alare	Ultra is CL for 'beyond'. Alare is a Latinized spelling of O.Fr aler 'go'[36] of disputed origin.	O.Fr *oltraler
transmeare	to swim across	transnotare	Pr. *notare 'swim' is CL natare.after vowel dissimilation.	Pr. [tɾaznotáːɾe] O.Fr *tresnoder O.It [tranotaːɾe]
				Pr. [notáːɾe] O.Fr [noðær] Rs. nodar Dl. [notuo̯r] O.It [notaːɾe][upper-roman 10] O.Rm [notare]
				Pr. [natáːɾe] Oc. [naða] Ct. [nəða] Sp. [naðaɾ] Po. [nɐðaɾ]
tugurium	hut	cavana	Of obscure origin.	Pr. [kapánna] O.Fr [tʃavanə] Oc. [kaβanɔ] It. [kapanna] Sp. [kaβaɲa] Po. [kɐβɐnɐ]
turibulum	incense burner	incensarium	LL incensum with locational suffix -arium.	Pr. [ɪnkensáːɾ^ju] O.Fr [entsensjær] 'incense burner' Fr. [ɑ̃sɑ̃sje] 'rosemary'
thurmas	crowds	fulcos	Frankish *fulc.	O.Fr [fols] Fr. [ful_ə.z]^fem O.Oc. folcs	Pr. [tʊ́ɾmas] It. [torme] Fri. torme Sd. [tɾumas] Rm. [turmə] Alb. turmë
tutamenta	defenses	defendementa	CL defendere 'protect' with instrumental suffix -mentum.	O.Fr defendements	—
uecors	foolish, senseless	esdarnatus	Frankish *darn.	Fr. dial [daʁn_ə] 'stumbling, impulsive'	—
ueru	roasting-spit	spidus	Frankish *spit.	O.Fr [esˈpejts]^nom	Pr. [βerrʊ́klu][upper-roman 11] O.Fr [veroʎ] Fr. [vɛʁu][upper-roman 12] Oc. [barul] O.Sp [βeroʒo][upper-roman 13] O.Po [veroʎu][upper-roman 14] 'door-bolt'
ueru	roasting-spit	spidus	Frankish *spit.	O.Fr [esˈpejt]^acc Fr. [epwa] Sp. [espeto] Po. [iʃpetu]
uespertiliones	bats	calves sorices	In CL this would mean 'bald mice'.	Pr. [kálβas soríːkes] O.Fr [tʃalvəs sorits] Fr. [ʃofsuʁi_z]	Pr. [βespeɾtɛ́ɭɭu]^dim O.It [vispistrɛllo] It. [pipistrɛllo] Ast. esperteyo
uestis	garment	rauba	Frankish *rauba 'spoils of war, garments'	O.Fr [rɔbə] Fr. [ʁɔb_ə] Oc. [rawβɔ] Ct. [rɔβə] It. [rɔːba] Sp. [ropa] Po. [ʁowpɐ]	Pr. [βestɪmɛ́ntu] O.Fr [vestəment] Fr. [vɛt_əmɑ̃] Rs. büschmaint Dl. [vestemjant] Rm. [veʃmɨnt]
uim	power	fortiam	CL fortia 'strong' reinterpreted as a feminine noun.	Pr. [fɔ́ɾts^ja] O.Fr [fɔrtsə] Fr. [fɔχs_ə] Oc. [fɔɾsɔ] Ct. [fɔɾsə] Rs. forza It. [fɔrtsa] Sp. [fweɾθa] Po. [foɾsɐ]	—
uiscera	guts	intralia	Analogous CL interanea, from Pre-Latin *interus 'inside' with adjective suffix -anea.	Pr. [ɪntɾáʎʎas] O.Fr [entraʎəs] Fr. [ɑ̃tχaj_ə.z] Oc. [entɾaʎɔs]
uiscera	guts	intralia		Pr. [ɪntɾáɲɲas] O.Fr [entɾaɲəs] Ct. [əntɾaɲəs] Sp. [entɾaɲas] Po. [ẽntɾɐɲɐʃ]
ungues	fingernails	ungulas	CL for 'claws' diminutive of ungues.	Pr. [ʊ́ŋglas] O.Fr [oŋɡləs] Fr. [ɔ̃ɡl_ə.z] Oc. [uŋɡlɔs] Ct. [uŋɡləs] Rs. [uŋgləs] It. [uŋɡje] Dl. [ongle] Sd. [uŋgɾas] Sp. [uɲas] Po. [uɲɐʃ] Rm. [uŋɡʲ]
uorax	devouring	manducans	CL for 'chewing'. Manducare later became the standard word for 'eat' in most Romance languages.	Pr. [mandukánte]^acc O.Fr [mandʒjant] Fr. [mɑ̃ʒɑ̃] Oc. [mandʒjan] O.It [manikante] Sd. [mandiɣandɛ]
urguet	he urges onward	adastat	Frankish *haist 'haste'.	O.Oc [adasta][41]
usuris	interest on a loan	lucris	CL for 'profits, wealth'.	Pr. [lʊ́kɾi]^nom Arom. lucri 'objects'
usuris	interest on a loan	lucris	CL for 'profits, wealth'.	Pr. [lʊ́kɾos]^acc O.Fr [lojrs] 'revenues, assets' Sp. [loɣɾos] Po. [loɣɾuʃ] 'achievements'
utere	use	usitare	CL freq. of utere.	Pr. [úːsa] Fr. [yz_ə] Oc. [yzɔ] Ct. [uzə] It. [uːza] Sp. [usa] Po. [uzɐ]
utres	wineskins	folli	CL folles 'leather bags, bellows'.	Pr. [fɔ́ɭɭes] O.Fr [fɔls] Fr. [fu_z] Oc. [fɔls] Ct. [foʎs] It. [fɔlli] 'madmen, fools' Sd. [fɔɖɖɛzɛ] Sp. [fweʎes] Po. [fɔlɨʃ] Rm. [fo̯ale] 'bellows'	Pr. [ʊ́tɾes] O.Fr [ostrəs] Fr. [utχ_ə.z] It. [otri] Sp. [oðɾes] Po. [oðɾɨʃ] Arom. utri
uuas	grapes	racemos	CL for 'clusters, bunches' often in reference to grapes.	Pr. [rakíːmos]_. O.Fr [rajdzins] Fr. [ʁɛzɛ̃_z] Oc. [razins] Ct. [rəims] 'grapes' Sp. [raθimos] Po. [ʁɐsimuʃ] 'clusters'	Pr. [úːβas] Rs. ieuvas It. [uːve] Dl. [jojve] Sp. [uβas] Po. [uvɐʃ] Rm. dial aue
uuas	grapes	racemos	CL for 'clusters, bunches' often in reference to grapes.	Pr. [rakíːmʊli]^dim It. [raʧiːmoli] 'clusters'

Notes

Read: abeo.
Read: abietarii.
Read: castro.
Read: crabrones.
Read: cribro.
Read: cingulum.
Read: furentur.
Read: habenas.
Read: harundine.
Read: hebetatum.
Read: hyacinthinas.
Read: labrum.
Read: papula.
Read: polenta.
Read: malus clavus.
Read: tero.

The [js] ending is of uncertain origin. It may have been taken from *trasjo < Classical Latin transeo 'I cross'.[4] The resulting *vawsjo would then yield vois by regular developments.
Old Spanish had [βo], as expected. The origin of the later [j] is debated. It may either reflect O.Sp y 'there' or be the result of contamination from the following pronoun in the phrase vo-yo 'I go'.[5]
Compound of porcu 'pig' and abru < Pr. apru 'boar'.
Which, combined with the definite article al, was borrowed into Spanish as [alˈkaθaɾ].
With remnants of the prefix ex.[11]
Initial consonant probably taken from Latin perdix, 'partridge'.[14]
Variant of O.Fr [vɛspəs] (from CL vespas) with the initial consonant taken from the Frankish word.[15] Germanic /w/ was borrowed into Romance as /gw/.[16]
In the Sursilvan dialect, masculine singular -s survives as a predicative ending in adjectives. E.g. il paun ei cars 'the bread is expensive'.[18]
Unexpected [i] due to influence from unrelated chemin 'path, way' via folk-etymology.[25]
Future stem of aller 'to go'.
With spontaneous and irregular nasalization.[26]
Old Portuguese had the expected form [si].
Still refers to a measure of land in some dialects.[27]
[ad] possibly taken from O.Sp granada.[28]
With spontaneous and irregular nasalization.[26]
Nasalization came from an /n/ that was added to this word after the Old French period, under the influence of CL monstrare.[30]
Restoration of intervocalic /p/ possibly the result of onomatopoeia for the fluttering of a butterfly's wings.[31]
Later replaced by dim. [klaˈβɛl] in order to distinguish it from [klaw] 'key'.

In O.Fr the initial vowel of this verb could be either [a] or [ɛ] depending on stress. Consider the following examples:
Pr. [ˈaːmat] 'he loves' > [ˈajməθ] > [ˈɛmə]
Pr. [aˈmaːta] 'beloved' > [aˈmæðə] > [aˈmɛə]
Subsequently [ɛ] spread to all conjugations, resulting in modern French [ɛme] 'beloved' instead of *[ame].[17]
Modern [despoxaɾon]
Modern chiodo, influenced by chiudure 'to shut'.
Final -s drawn by analogy from adverbs that already ended with this sound in Latin, such as mielz, mais < melius, magis.[32]
There is a single attestation of the participle envengud in Old French. The word is otherwise nowhere to be found.
Modern [kuɾtinɐ], without palatal [ɲ], possibly borrowed from neighboring languages or Latin.
Devoicing from v to f is unusual and of disputed origin.
The expected outcome would have been [ʁɛmə]. The modern form appears to have taken its initial vowel from the original diminutive rameau, where the a was unstressed and hence did not change to [ɛ].[35]
Replaced in most dialects, including the standard, with toupeira < talparia.
Modern Italian has [nwo'taːɾe], which is an unexpected form. Its origin lies in rhizotonic conjugations of notare, where the initial vowel was diphthongized to [wɔː]. This diphthong later spread to arrhizotonic forms by analogy.[37]
Diminutive of ueru. Geminate r taken from ferru 'iron'.[38]
Back-formation from O.Fr plural [veroʎts] > [verus].[39] The expected outcome of [veroʎ] would have been *[vɛʁuj], cf. fenouil < *fenuclu.
Modern [θeroxo], whose initial consonant was taken from cerrar 'to shut'.[40]
Modern [fɨʁoʎu], whose initial consonant was taken from ferro 'iron'.[40]

References

Quirós, Manuel (1986). "Las Glosas De Reichenau". Filología y Lingüística (in Spanish). 12: 43. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
Diament, H. (1968). "A New Hypothesis of the origin of French Aller". WORD. 24 (1–3): 73–80. doi:10.1080/00437956.1968.11435516.
Alkire & Rosen 2010, pp. 319–320.
Pope 1934, p.362
Lloyd 1994, p. 355-358
Adams 2008, p. 333
Pei, Mario (1941). The Italian Language. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 78, 150.
Marchot, Paul. (1901). Petite phonétique du français prélittéraire VIe - Xe siècles. B. Veith. p. 75. OCLC 490776563.
Fowler, Henry. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-19-969612-3. OCLC 863588999.
Alkire & Rosen 2010, pp. 62–63.
https://dexonline.ro/definitie/schimb
Rossi, Mario, 1928-. Dictionnaire étymologique et ethnologique des parlers brionnais : Bourgogne du Sud. p. 144. ISBN 978-2-7483-0533-3. OCLC 1033714396.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Pesen 1972, p. 46.
https://dexonline.ro/definitie/pot%C3%A2rniche
https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/gu%C3%AApe
Akire & Rosen 2010, p.53
Akire&Rosen, p. 115)
Loporcaro. Gender from Latin to Romance. pp. 76–77. ISBN 0-19-184810-7. OCLC 999667793.
"sollar". Diccionario de la lengua española (in Spanish) (23rd ed.). Real Academia Española. 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
Akire & Rosen 2010, pp. 176–177.
Sampson, Rodney (2011). Nasal vowel evolution in Romance. Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-19-823848-7. OCLC 907242046.
Adams 2008, p.315
Kiesler, Reinhard (2006). Einführung in die Problematik des Vulgärlateins (in German). Tübingen: Niemeyer. p. 91.
Posner, Rebecca. (1996). The Romance languages. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-521-23654-1. OCLC 231685450.
https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/chemin%C3%A9e
Bichakjian, Bernard Hayck. (1981). From Linguistics to Literature: Romance Studies Offered to Francis M. Rogers. J. Benjamins B.V. p. 32. OCLC 877942077.
https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie8/journal
https://www.etymonline.com/word/grenade#etymonline_v_11960
Elcock, W. D. (1975). The Romance languages. Faber and Faber. p. 71. OCLC 604561391.
https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/montrer
https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/papillon
Jensen, Frede. Old French and Comparative Gallo-Romance Syntax. p. 398. ISBN 978-3-11-093816-6. OCLC 979590633.
Anderson, James; Rochet, Bernard (1979). Historical romance morphology. University Microfilms International. p. 267. ISBN 9780835704625.
Jensen, Frede. (1986). The Syntax of Medieval Occitan. p. 3. ISBN 978-3-11-132927-7. OCLC 979596835.
https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/rame
Alkire & Rosen 2010, p. 320.
Akire & Rosen 2010, p. 113
Malkiel, Yakov. (1983). From Particular to General Linguistics: Selected Essays 1965-1978. With an introduction by the author, an index rerum and an index nominum. John Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 474. ISBN 978-90-272-8315-3. OCLC 742333651.
https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/verrou
Malkiel, p. 474
Lévy, Emil. (1973). Petit dictionnaire provençal - français. C. Winter. p. 6. ISBN 3-533-01393-6. OCLC 611288082.

Sources

Hall, Robert A. (Robert Anderson), 1911-1997. (1983). Proto-Romance Phonology. John Benjamins. ISBN 90-272-3522-8. OCLC 10743568.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Hall, Robert A. (Robert Anderson), 1911-1997. (1983). Proto-Romance Morphology. John Benjamins Pub. Co. ISBN 90-272-3522-8. OCLC 10773070.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Ferguson, Thaddeus (1976-01-31). A History of the Romance Vowel Systems through Paradigmatic Reconstruction. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-080696-0.
Saenko M. Annotated Swadesh wordlists for the Romance group (Indo-European family) In: Starostin GS, editor. The Global Lexicostatistical Database. RGU; 2015. Http://starling.rinet.ru/new100/rom.xls
Alkire, Ti; Rosen, Rosen (July 2010). Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521717847.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Lloyd, Paul M. (1994). From Latin to Spanish. The American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-173-6. OCLC 1014840700.
Pope, M. k. (1934). From Latin to Modern French... Manchester u.p. OCLC 867782522.
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. <Paris>. Analyse et Traitement Informatique de la Langue Française. Trésor de la langue française informatisé (TLFi). CNRS Éd. ISBN 2-271-06275-6. OCLC 314900413.
Jensen, Frede (1972). From Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal. ISBN 978-1-4696-4614-5. OCLC 1049802174.
Adams, J.N. (7 January 2008). The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC - AD 600. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107684584.
Lewis, Charlton; Short, Charles (1879). A Latin Dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin Dictionary. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864201-5. OCLC 913035650.
"Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales". CNRTL. 2020 [2005].
Andrews, E. A. (Ethan Allen), 1787-1858. (1907). Harper's Latin dictionary. A new Latin dictionary founded on the translation of Freund's Latin-German lexicon. American Book Company. OCLC 954216722.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
"Lo Congrès".

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[4] Read: abeo.

[9] Read: abietarii.

[15] Read: castro.

[24] Read: crabrones.

[28] Read: cribro.

[32] Read: cingulum.

[36] Read: furentur.

[38] Read: habenas.

[40] Read: harundine.

[41] Read: hebetatum.

[42] Read: hyacinthinas.

[53] Read: labrum.

[62] Read: papula.

[63] Read: polenta.

[64] Read: malus clavus.

[78] Read: tero.

[6] The [js] ending is of uncertain origin. It may have been taken from *trasjo < Classical Latin transeo 'I cross'.[4] The resulting *vawsjo would then yield vois by regular developments.

[8] Old Spanish had [βo], as expected. The origin of the later [j] is debated. It may either reflect O.Sp y 'there' or be the result of contamination from the following pronoun in the phrase vo-yo 'I go'.[5]

[12] Compound of porcu 'pig' and abru < Pr. apru 'boar'.

[16] Which, combined with the definite article al, was borrowed into Spanish as [alˈkaθaɾ].

[19] With remnants of the prefix ex.[11]

[23] Initial consonant probably taken from Latin perdix, 'partridge'.[14]

[27] Variant of O.Fr [vɛspəs] (from CL vespas) with the initial consonant taken from the Frankish word.[15] Germanic /w/ was borrowed into Romance as /gw/.[16]

[34] In the Sursilvan dialect, masculine singular -s survives as a predicative ending in adjectives. E.g. il paun ei cars 'the bread is expensive'.[18]

[47] Unexpected [i] due to influence from unrelated chemin 'path, way' via folk-etymology.[25]

[48] Future stem of aller 'to go'.

[50] With spontaneous and irregular nasalization.[26]
Old Portuguese had the expected form [si].

[52] Still refers to a measure of land in some dialects.[27]

[55] [ad] possibly taken from O.Sp granada.[28]

[56] With spontaneous and irregular nasalization.[26]

[59] Nasalization came from an /n/ that was added to this word after the Old French period, under the influence of CL monstrare.[30]

[61] Restoration of intervocalic /p/ possibly the result of onomatopoeia for the fluttering of a butterfly's wings.[31]

[65] Later replaced by dim. [klaˈβɛl] in order to distinguish it from [klaw] 'key'.

[30] In O.Fr the initial vowel of this verb could be either [a] or [ɛ] depending on stress. Consider the following examples:
Pr. [ˈaːmat] 'he loves' > [ˈajməθ] > [ˈɛmə]
Pr. [aˈmaːta] 'beloved' > [aˈmæðə] > [aˈmɛə]
Subsequently [ɛ] spread to all conjugations, resulting in modern French [ɛme] 'beloved' instead of *[ame].[17]

[31] Modern [despoxaɾon]

[66] Modern chiodo, influenced by chiudure 'to shut'.

[68] Final -s drawn by analogy from adverbs that already ended with this sound in Latin, such as mielz, mais < melius, magis.[32]

[69] There is a single attestation of the participle envengud in Old French. The word is otherwise nowhere to be found.

[70] Modern [kuɾtinɐ], without palatal [ɲ], possibly borrowed from neighboring languages or Latin.

[71] Devoicing from v to f is unusual and of disputed origin.

[75] The expected outcome would have been [ʁɛmə]. The modern form appears to have taken its initial vowel from the original diminutive rameau, where the a was unstressed and hence did not change to [ɛ].[35]

[76] Replaced in most dialects, including the standard, with toupeira < talparia.

[80] Modern Italian has [nwo'taːɾe], which is an unexpected form. Its origin lies in rhizotonic conjugations of notare, where the initial vowel was diphthongized to [wɔː]. This diphthong later spread to arrhizotonic forms by analogy.[37]

[82] Diminutive of ueru. Geminate r taken from ferru 'iron'.[38]

[84] Back-formation from O.Fr plural [veroʎts] > [verus].[39] The expected outcome of [veroʎ] would have been *[vɛʁuj], cf. fenouil < *fenuclu.

[86] Modern [θeroxo], whose initial consonant was taken from cerrar 'to shut'.[40]

[87] Modern [fɨʁoʎu], whose initial consonant was taken from ferro 'iron'.[40]

[1] Quirós, Manuel (1986). "Las Glosas De Reichenau". Filología y Lingüística (in Spanish). 12: 43. Retrieved 10 April 2016.

[2] Diament, H. (1968). "A New Hypothesis of the origin of French Aller". WORD. 24 (1–3): 73–80. doi:10.1080/00437956.1968.11435516.

[FOOTNOTEAlkireRosen2010319–320-3] Alkire & Rosen 2010, pp. 319–320.

[5] Pope 1934, p.362

[7] Lloyd 1994, p. 355-358

[10] Adams 2008, p. 333

[11] Pei, Mario (1941). The Italian Language. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 78, 150.

[13] Marchot, Paul. (1901). Petite phonétique du français prélittéraire VIe - Xe siècles. B. Veith. p. 75. OCLC 490776563.

[14] Fowler, Henry. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-19-969612-3. OCLC 863588999.

[FOOTNOTEAlkireRosen201062–63-17] Alkire & Rosen 2010, pp. 62–63.

[18] ttps://dexonline.ro/definitie/schimb

[20] Rossi, Mario, 1928-. Dictionnaire étymologique et ethnologique des parlers brionnais : Bourgogne du Sud. p. 144. ISBN 978-2-7483-0533-3. OCLC 1033714396.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[FOOTNOTEPesen197246-21] Pesen 1972, p. 46.

[22] ttps://dexonline.ro/definitie/pot%C3%A2rniche

[25] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/gu%C3%AApe

[26] Akire & Rosen 2010, p.53

[29] Akire&Rosen, p. 115)

[33] Loporcaro. Gender from Latin to Romance. pp. 76–77. ISBN 0-19-184810-7. OCLC 999667793.

[35] "sollar". Diccionario de la lengua española (in Spanish) (23rd ed.). Real Academia Española. 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2016.

[FOOTNOTEAkireRosen2010176–177-37] Akire & Rosen 2010, pp. 176–177.

[39] Sampson, Rodney (2011). Nasal vowel evolution in Romance. Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-19-823848-7. OCLC 907242046.

[43] Adams 2008, p.315

[44] Kiesler, Reinhard (2006). Einführung in die Problematik des Vulgärlateins (in German). Tübingen: Niemeyer. p. 91.

[45] Posner, Rebecca. (1996). The Romance languages. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-521-23654-1. OCLC 231685450.

[46] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/chemin%C3%A9e

[Bichakjian,_Bernard_Hayck._1981_32-49] Bichakjian, Bernard Hayck. (1981). From Linguistics to Literature: Romance Studies Offered to Francis M. Rogers. J. Benjamins B.V. p. 32. OCLC 877942077.

[51] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie8/journal

[54] ttps://www.etymonline.com/word/grenade#etymonline_v_11960

[57] Elcock, W. D. (1975). The Romance languages. Faber and Faber. p. 71. OCLC 604561391.

[58] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/montrer

[60] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/papillon

[67] Jensen, Frede. Old French and Comparative Gallo-Romance Syntax. p. 398. ISBN 978-3-11-093816-6. OCLC 979590633.

[72] Anderson, James; Rochet, Bernard (1979). Historical romance morphology. University Microfilms International. p. 267. ISBN 9780835704625.

[73] Jensen, Frede. (1986). The Syntax of Medieval Occitan. p. 3. ISBN 978-3-11-132927-7. OCLC 979596835.

[74] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/rame

[AR320-77] Alkire & Rosen 2010, p. 320.

[79] Akire & Rosen 2010, p. 113

[81] Malkiel, Yakov. (1983). From Particular to General Linguistics: Selected Essays 1965-1978. With an introduction by the author, an index rerum and an index nominum. John Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 474. ISBN 978-90-272-8315-3. OCLC 742333651.

[83] ttps://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/verrou

[Malkiel,_p._474-85] Malkiel, p. 474

[88] Lévy, Emil. (1973). Petit dictionnaire provençal - français. C. Winter. p. 6. ISBN 3-533-01393-6. OCLC 611288082.