List of Roman emperors

The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, after major roles played by the populist dictator and military leader Julius Caesar. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the council)[1] and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps. For example, Augustus' official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.

Augustus, the first Roman emperor

The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied most of Europe and portions of northern Africa and western Asia. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the Senate and People of Rome. During the republic, the chief magistrates of Rome were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, and the election was controlled by the emperor.

In the late 3rd century, after the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian formalised and embellished the recent manner of imperial rule, establishing the so-called Dominate period of the Roman Empire. This was characterised by the explicit increase of authority in the person of the Emperor, and the use of the style Dominus Noster ("Our Lord"). The rise of powerful Barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire and the challenge they posed to defense of far-flung borders and unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration geographically of the Empire in 286 with a co-Augustus.

In 313, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, issued the Edict of Milan along with Licinius that granted freedom in the worship of Christianity. In 330, he established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognised senior emperor, with the division usually based in geographic terms. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.[2] However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, and so the end of a separate list of emperors below, is dated either from the de facto date of 476 when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern Emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court. In the period that followed, the Empire is usually treated by historians as the Byzantine Empire governed by the Byzantine Emperors, although this designation is not used universally, and continues to be a subject of specialist debate today.[3]

In the 7th century reign of Heraclius, the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 saw much of Rome's eastern territory lost to the Sasanian Empire, recovered by Heraclius, and then lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad and establishment of Islam. The Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars.

The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were captured by the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II.[4] The Ottoman dynasty carried on using the title of Caesar of Rome.

Counting all individuals to have possessed the full imperial title, including those who did not technically rule in their own right (e.g. co-emperors or minors during regencies), this list contains 196 emperors and 3 ruling empresses, for a total of 199 monarchs.

Legitimacy

The emperors listed in this article are those generally agreed to have been 'legitimate' emperors, and who appear in published regnal lists.[5][6][7] The word 'legitimate' is used by most authors, but usually without clear definition, perhaps not surprisingly, since the emperorship was itself rather vaguely defined legally. In Augustus' original formulation, the princeps was selected by either the Senate or "the people" of Rome, but quite quickly the legions became an acknowledged stand-in for "the people." A person could be proclaimed as emperor by their troops or by "the mob" in the street, but in theory needed to be confirmed by the Senate. The coercion that frequently resulted was implied in this formulation. Furthermore, a sitting emperor was empowered to name a successor and take him on as apprentice in government and in that case the Senate had no role to play, although it sometimes did when a successor lacked the power to inhibit bids by rival claimants. By the medieval (or Byzantine) period, the very definition of the Senate became vague as well, adding to the complication.[8]

Lists of legitimate emperors are therefore partly influenced by the subjective views of those compiling them, and also partly by historical convention. Many of the 'legitimate' emperors listed here acceded to the position by usurpation, and many 'illegitimate' claimants had a legitimate claim to the position. Historically, the following criteria have been used to derive emperor lists:

Any individual who undisputedly ruled the whole Empire, at some point, is a 'legitimate emperor'(1).
Any individual who was nominated as heir or co-emperor by a legitimate emperor (1), and who succeeded to rule in his own right, is a legitimate emperor (2).
Where there were multiple claimants, and none were legitimate heirs, the claimant accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor is the legitimate emperor (3), at least during the Principate.

So for instance, Aurelian, though acceding to the throne by usurpation, was the sole and undisputed monarch between 270 and 275, and thus was a legitimate emperor. Gallienus, though not in control of the whole Empire, and plagued by other claimants, was the legitimate heir of (the legitimate emperor) Valerian. Claudius Gothicus, though acceding illegally, and not in control of the whole Empire, was the only claimant accepted by the Senate, and thus, for his reign, was the legitimate emperor. Equally, during the Year of the Four Emperors, all claimants, though not undisputed, were at some point accepted by the Senate and are thus included; conversely, during the Year of the Five Emperors neither Pescennius Niger nor Clodius Albinus were accepted by the Senate, and are thus not included. There are a few examples where individuals were made co-emperor, but never wielded power in their own right (typically the child of an emperor); these emperors are legitimate, but are not included in regnal lists, and in this article are listed together with the senior emperor.

Emperors after 395

After 395, the list of emperors in the East is based on the same general criteria, with the exception that the emperor only had to be in undisputed control of the Eastern part of the empire, or be the legitimate heir of the Eastern emperor.

The situation in the West is more complex. Throughout the final years of the Western Empire (395–480) the Eastern emperor was considered the senior emperor, and a Western emperor was only legitimate if recognized as such by the Eastern emperor. Furthermore, after 455 the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes no claimant at all. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after 455 are included in this list, even if they were not recognized by the Eastern Empire;[9] some of these technically illegitimate emperors are included in regnal lists, while others are not. For instance, Romulus Augustulus was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by Odoacer used as the marking point between historical epochs, and as such he is usually included in regnal lists. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustulus' predecessor, Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes details of both figures.

The Principate

27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Augustus IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI FILIVS AVGVSTVS	23 September 63 BC, Rome, Italia	Great-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; became de facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between himself and the Roman Senate.	16 January 27 BC – 19 August 14 AD Sometimes taken to have begun his reign in October 43 BC.[10]	40 years, 7 months and 3 days	19 August 14 AD (aged 75) Natural causes
Tiberius TIBERIVS CAESAR DIVI AVGVSTI FILIVS AVGVSTVS	16 November 42 BC, Rome, Italia	Natural son of Livia Drusilla, Augustus' third wife, by a previous marriage; stepbrother and third husband of Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus; adopted by Augustus as his son and heir.	18 September 14 AD – 16 March 37 AD	22 years, 5 months and 27 days	16 March 37 AD (aged 77) Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula or praetorian prefect Naevius Sutorius Macro
Caligula GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	31 August 12 AD, Antium, Italia	Great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius; natural son of Germanicus; great-grandson of Augustus.	18 March 37 AD – 24 January 41 AD	3 years, 10 months and 6 days	24 January 41 AD (aged 28) Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards
Claudius TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	1 August 10 BC, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis	Uncle of Caligula; brother of Germanicus; nephew of Tiberius; great-nephew and step-grandson of Augustus; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard.	25/26 January 41 AD – 13 October 54 AD	13 years, 8 months and 18/19 days	13 October 54 AD (aged 63) Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger, in favour of her son Nero, possibly natural causes
Nero NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	15 December 37 AD, Antium, Italia	Great-nephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius; nephew of Caligula; great-great-nephew of Tiberius; grandson of Germanicus; great-great-grandson of Augustus	13 October 54 AD – 9 June 68 AD	13 years, 7 months and 27 days	9 June 68 AD (aged 30) Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate

68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Galba SERVIVS GALBA IMPERATOR CAESAR AVGVSTVS	24 December 3 BC, near Terracina, Italia	Seized power after Nero's suicide, with support of the Praetorian Guard	8 June 68 AD – 15 January 69 AD	7 months and 7 days	15 January 69 AD (aged 72) Murdered by Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho
Otho IMPERATOR MARCVS OTHO CAESAR AVGVSTVS	28 April 32 AD, Ferentinum, Italia	Appointed by Praetorian Guard	15 January 69 AD – 16 April 69 AD	3 months and 1 day	16 April 69 AD (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius
Vitellius AVLVS VITELLIVS GERMANICVS IMPERATOR AVGVSTVS	24 September 15 AD, Rome, Italia	Seized power with support of German Legions (in opposition to Galba/Otho)	17 April 69 AD – 20 December 69 AD	8 months and 3 days	20 December 69 AD (aged 54) Murdered by Vespasian's troops
Vespasian IMPERATOR CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS	17 November 9 AD, Falacrine, Italia	Seized power with the support of the eastern Legions (in opposition to Marcillinus)	21 December 69 AD – 24 June 79 AD	9 years, 6 months and 3 days	24 June 79 AD (aged 69) Natural causes
Titus IMPERATOR TITVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS	30 December 39 AD, Rome, Italia	Son of Vespasian	24 June 79 AD – 13 September 81 AD	2 years, 2 months and 20 days	13 September 81 AD (aged 41) Natural causes (fever)
Domitian IMPERATOR CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	24 October 51 AD, Rome, Italia	Brother of Titus; son of Vespasian	14 September 81 AD – 18 September 96 AD	15 years and 4 days	18 September 96 AD (aged 44) Assassinated by court officials

96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty

Note: all dates AD hereafter.


Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Nerva IMPERATOR NERVA CAESAR AVGVSTVS	8 November 30, Narni, Italia	Appointed by the Senate. First of the "Five Good Emperors".	18 September 96 – 27 January 98	1 year, 4 months and 9 days	27 January 98 (aged 67) Natural causes
Trajan IMPERATOR CAESAR NERVA TRAIANVS AVGVSTVS	18 September 53, Italica, Hispania Baetica	Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire	28 January 98 – 7 August 117	19 years, 6 months and 10 days	7 August 117 (aged 63) Natural causes
Hadrian IMPERATOR CAESAR TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS	24 January 76, Italica, Hispania Baetica (or Rome)	Adopted son and heir of Trajan	11 August 117 – 10 July 138	20 years, 10 months and 30 days	10 July 138 (aged 62) Natural causes
Antoninus Pius IMPERATOR CAESAR TITVS AELIVS HADRIANVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS	19 September 86, Near Lanuvium, Italia	Adopted son and heir of Hadrian	10 July 138 – 7 March 161	22 years, 6 months and 28 days	7 March 161 (aged 74) Natural causes
Lucius Verus IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS AVRELIVS VERVS AVGVSTVS	15 December 130, Rome	Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death	7 March 161 – ? March 169	8 years	March 169 (aged 39) Natural causes (Plague)
Marcus Aurelius IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	26 April 121, Rome	Adopted son, son-in-law and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus until 169. Last of the "Five Good Emperors"	7 March 161 – 17 March 180	19 years and 10 days	March 17, 180 (aged 58) Natural causes
Commodus IMPERATOR CAESAR LUCIVS AELIVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS AVGVSTVS	31 August 161, Lanuvium, Italia	Natural son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from 177	17 March 180 – 31 December 192	3 years as joint emperor, 12 years as sole emperor	31 December 192 (aged 31) Assassinated in palace, strangled in his bath

193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Pertinax IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS HELVIVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVS	1 August 126, Alba, Italy	Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard	1 January – 28 March 193	2 months and 27 days (86 days)	28 March 193 (aged 66) Murdered by Praetorian Guard
Didius Julianus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS DIDIVS SEVERVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS	133 or 137, Milan, Italy	Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor	28 March – 1 June 193	2 months and 4 days (65 days)	1 June 193 (aged 56 or 60) Executed on orders of the Senate
Septimius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS EVSEBES PERTINAX AVGVSTVS	11 April 145, Leptis Magna, Libya	Seized power with support of Pannonian legions[lower-alpha 1]	9 April 193 – 4 February 211	17 years, 9 months and 26 days	4 February 211 (aged 65) Natural causes
Caracalla IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	4 April 188, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis	Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus from 198; with Severus and Geta from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Geta until December 211	4 February 211 – 8 April 217	13 years as joint emperor 10 months with Geta 6 years as sole emperor	8 April 217 (aged 29) Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy involving Macrinus
Geta IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS SEPTIMIVS CETA AVGVSTUS	7 March 189, Rome	Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Caracalla until December 211	4 February – 26 December 211	2 years as joint emperor 10 months with Caracalla	26 December 211 (aged 22) Murdered on the orders of Caracalla
Macrinus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS with Diadumenian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS ANTONINVS DIADVMENIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 165, Caesarea, Mauretania	Praetorian Prefect to Caracalla, probably conspired to have Caracalla murdered and proclaimed himself emperor after Caracalla's death; made his son Diadumenian (born on 14 September 208) co-emperor in May 218	11 April 217 – 8 June 218	1 year, 1 month and 28 days	8 June 218 (aged 53) Both executed in favour of Elagabalus
Elagabalus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 204, Emesa, Syria	Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, first cousin once removed and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla; proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions	8 June 218 – 11 March 222	3 years, 9 months and 3 days	11 March 222 (aged 18) Murdered by Praetorian Guard
Severus Alexander IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ALEXANDER AVGVSTVS	c. 208, Arca Caesarea, Syria	Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, cousin and adoptive heir of Elagabalus	13 March 222 – 18 March 235	13 years and 5 days	18 March 235 (aged 27) Murdered by the army

235–285: Gordian dynasty and Crisis of the Third Century

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Maximinus Thrax IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS IVLIVS VERVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 173, Thrace or Moesia	Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander	20 March 235 – June 238	3 years, 3 months	June 238 (aged 65) Assassinated by his men during the siege of Aquileia
Gordian I IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 159, Phrygia?	Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimised by the accession of Gordian III	March 22, 238 – April 12, 238	21 days	April 238 (aged 79) Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II.
Gordian II IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 192, ?	Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate.	March 22, 238 – April 12, 238	21 days	April 238 (aged 46) Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army
Pupienus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS	c. 165 or 170	Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus.	April 22, 238 – July 29, 238	3 months and 7 days	July 29, 238 (aged 68 or 73) Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard
Balbinus IMPERATOR CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS	178	Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian III	April 22, 238 – July 29, 238	3 months and 7 days	July 29, 238 (aged 60) Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Gordian III IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS PIVS AVGVSTVS	January 20, 225, Rome	Proclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I and II, then by the Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238; grandson and nephew of Gordian I and II, respectively	April 22, 238 – February 11, 244	5 years, 9 months and 20 days	February 11, 244 (aged 19) Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I
Philip the Arab IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILIPPVS AVGVSTVS with Philip II IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS SEVERVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS	c. 204, Shahba, Syria	Praetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II (born 237) co-emperor in summer 247	February 244 – September/October 249	5 years	September/October 249 (aged 45) Killed in the Battle of Verona by Decius, Philip II murdered by the Praetorian Guard
Decius IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS with Herennius Etruscus IMPERATOR CAESAR QVINTVS HERENNIVS ETRVSCVS MESSIVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 201, Budalia, Pannonia Inferior	Governor under Philip the Arab; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating and killing Philip in the Battle of Verona; made his son Herennius Etruscus (born 227) co-emperor in early 251	September/ October 249 – June 251	2 years	June 251 (aged 50) Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus fighting against the Goths
Hostilian IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS	Sirmium	Son of Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate	June 251 – late 251	4–5 months	September/October 251 (aged 21) Natural causes (plague)
Trebonianus Gallus IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS AFINIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS with Volusianus IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS VOLVSIANVS AVGVSTVS	206, Italia	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Decius's death (and in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251.	June 251 – August 253	2 years	August 253 (aged 47) Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of Aemilian
Aemilian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 207 or 213 Africa	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus	August 253 – October 253	2 months	September/October 253 (aged 40 or 46) Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Valerian
Valerian IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 195	Governor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of Aemilian	October 253 – 260	7 years	After 260 (aged at least 65) Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity
Gallienus IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS with Saloninus IMPERATOR CAESAR CORNELIVS LICINIVS SALONINVS VALERIANVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS	218	Son of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253; his son Saloninus (born c. 242) is very briefly co-emperor in c. July 260 before assassination by Postumus.	October 253 – September 268	15 years	September 268 (aged 50) Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders.
Claudius Gothicus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS	May 10, 210, Sirmium	Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death	September 268 – January 270	1 year, 4 months	January 270 (aged 60) Natural causes (plague)
Quintillus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS	c.210, Sirmium	Brother of Claudius II, seized power after his death	January 270 – September(?) 270	Unknown	270 (aged around 60) Unclear; possibly suicide or murder
Aurelian IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVS	September 9, 214/215, Sirmium	Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus	September(?) 270 – September 275	5 years	September 275 (aged 60-61) Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Tacitus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVS	c. 200, Interamna Nahars, Italia	Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum	September 25, 275 – June 276	9 months	June 276 (aged 76) Natural causes (possibly assassinated)
Florianus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS	?	Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him	June 276 – September? 276	3 months	September? 276 (aged ?) Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Probus
Probus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS	232, Sirmium	Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to Florian	September? 276 – September/ October 282	6 years	September/ October 282 (aged 50) Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Carus
Carus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS	c. 230, Narbo, Gallia Narbonensis	Praetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered; made his son Carinus co-emperor in early 283	September/ October 282 – late July/ early August 283	10–11 months	Late July/August 283 (aged 61) Probably natural causes (Possibly killed by lightning)
Carinus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS	?	Son of Carus, ruled shortly with him (from early 283) as co-emperor and then in his own right with his brother Numerian	Late July/early August 283 – 285	2 years	285 (aged ?) Probably died in battle against Diocletian
Numerian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS	?	Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Carinus	Late July/early August 283 – 284?	1 year	284 (aged ?) Unclear; possibly assassinated

The Dominate

284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar".

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Diocletian IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST and WEST) then, after 286 (EAST)	c. December 22, 244, Salona	Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus; adopted Maximian as senior co-emperor in 286	November 20, 284 – May 1, 305	20 years, 5 months and 11 days	3 December 311 (aged 67) Abdicated; died of natural causes in Aspalatos
Maximian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	c. 250, near Sirmium, Pannonia	Adopted as senior co-emperor ('Augustus') in the west by Diocletian in 286	April 1, 286 – May 1, 305	19 years and 1 month	310 (aged 60) Abdicated with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne with, and then from Maxentius; captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest
Galerius IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST)	c. 250, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Diocletian in 293. Also son-in-law of Diocletian.	May 1, 305 – May 311	6 years	311 (aged 61) Natural causes
Constantius Chlorus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	March 31, c. 250, Dardania, Moesia	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Maximian in 293	May 1, 305 – July 25, 306	1 year, 2 months and 24 days	306 (aged 56) Natural causes
Valerius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	?	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Constantius Chlorus in 305; succeeded as Augustus in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine I	Summer 306 – March/ April 307	1 year	September 16, 307 (aged ?) Captured by Maxentius and forced to commit suicide (or murdered)
Constantine the Great (Constantine I) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS AVRELIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS (WEST) then, after 324 (EAST and WEST)	February 27, c. 272, Naissus, Moesia Superior	Son of Constantius I Chlorus, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar (west) by Galerius in 306; promoted to Augustus (west) in 307 by Maximian after death of Severus II; refused relegation to Caesar in 309	July 25, 306 – May 22, 337	30 years, 9 months and 27 days	May 22, 337 (aged 65) Natural causes
Maxentius IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	c. 276	Son of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death of Constantius I Chlorus, in opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar (west) by Maximian in 307 after the death of Severus	October 28, 306 – October 28, 312	6 years	October 28, 312 (aged 36) Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I
Licinius IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALERIVS LICINIANVS LICINIVS AVGVSTVS (EAST) with Valerius Valens IMPERATOR CAESAR AVRELIVS VALERIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS and Martinian IMPERATOR CAESAR SEXTVS MARCIVS MARTININANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 263, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior	Son-in-law of Constantius Chlorus, appointed Augustus in the west by Galerius in 308, in opposition to Maxentius; became Augustus in the east in 311 after the death of Galerius (shared with Maximinus II); defeated Maximinus II in civil war to become sole eastern Augustus in 313; appointed Valerius Valens in 317, and Martinian in 324 as western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, both being executed within weeks.	November 11, 308 – September 18, 324	15 years, 10 months and 7 days	325 (aged 61/62) Defeated in civil war against Constantine I in 324 and captured; executed on the orders of Constantine the next year
Maximinus II IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS CALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS (EAST)	November 20, c. 270, Dacia Aureliana	Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311	May 1, 311 – July/August 313	2 years	July/August 313 (aged 42) Defeated in civil war against Licinius; probably committed suicide thereafter
Constantine II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	316, Arelate, Gallia Narbonensis	Son of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317, succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans I	May 22, 337 – 340	3 years	340 (aged 24) Died in battle against Constans I
Constantius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS (EAST) then, after 353 (EAST and WEST)	August 7, 317, Sirmium, Pannonia	Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350	May 22, 337 – November 3, 361	24 years, 5 months and 12 days	361 (aged 44) Natural causes
Constans I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS (MIDDLE) then, after 340 (WEST)	c. 323	Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II	May 22, 337 – 350	13 years	350 (aged 27) Assassinated on the orders of the usurper Magnentius
Vetranio IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VETRANIO AVGVSTVS (WEST)	?, Moesia	General of Constans, proclaimed Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west by Constantius II.	March 1, 350 – December 25, 350	9 months and 24 days	c. 356 (aged ?) As a private citizen, after abdication.
Julian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS (WEST) then, after 361 (EAST and WEST)	331/332, Constantinople, Thracia	Cousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in 355; proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the death of Constantius	February 360 – June 26, 363	3 years	June 26, 363 (aged 31/32) Mortally wounded in battle
Jovian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IOVIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST and WEST)	331, Singidunum, Moesia	General of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor by the troops on Julian's death	June 26, 363 – February 17, 364	7 months and 22 days	February 17, 364 (aged 33) Natural causes (suffocated on fumes)

364–392: Valentinian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Valentinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST and WEST) then (WEST)	321, Cibalae, Pannonia	Elected to replace Jovian by the army	February 26, 364 – November 17, 375	11 years, 8 months and 22 days	November 17, 375 (aged 54) Natural causes
Valens IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS (EAST)	328, Cibalae, Pannonia	Brother of Valentinian I, appointed co-augustus (for the east) by him	March 28, 364 – August 9, 378	14 years, 4 months and 12 days	August 9, 378 (aged 50) Killed in Battle of Adrianople against the Goths
Gratian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GRATIANVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	April 18/May 23, 359, Sirmium, Pannonia	Son of Valentinian I, appointed junior Augustus by him in 367, became senior Augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death.	August 4, 367 – August 25, 383	16 years and 21 days	August 25, 383 (aged 24) Murdered by rebellious army faction
Valentinian II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	371, Milan, Italia	Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army after Valentinian's death; accepted as co-Augustus for the west by Gratian	November 17, 375 – May 15, 392	16 years, 5 months and 28 days	May 15, 392 (aged 21) Unclear; possibly murdered or committed suicide

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Magnus Maximus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAGNVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS (WEST) with Victor IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VICTOR AVGVSTVS	c. 335, Hispania	Usurper in the West; legitimized along with his son Victor by Theodosius I as emperors of Britannia and Gaul.	383/384 – August 28, 388	4/5 years	August 28, 388 (aged 53) Executed by Theodosius I in Aquileia after the Battle of the Save; Victor killed by Arbogast

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Eugenius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS EVGENIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	?	Usurper in the West; elevated to emperor by Arbogast.	August 22 392 – September 6, 394	2 years, 15 days	September 6, 394 Executed as a criminal by Theodosius I near the Frigidus river

Western Emperors

392–455: Theodosian dynasty

Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania	Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II (Eastern Emperor since 379)	May 15, 392 – January 17, 395	2 years, 8 months and 2 days	January 17, 395 (aged 48) Natural causes
Honorius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HONORIVS AVGVSTVS	September 9, 384	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the west by Theodosius on January 23, 393 (after the death of Valentinian II); became senior Augustus for the west after his father's death	January 17, 395 – August 15, 423	28 years, 6 months and 29 days	August 15, 423 (aged 38) Natural causes
Constantine III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Constans II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS	?	Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Elevated his son Constans II to co-emperor in 409, who was not recognized by Honorius. Neither recognized by the Eastern Empire.	407/409 - August or September 411	2 years	August or September 411 (aged ?) Executed by Constantius III
Constantius III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS	?, Naissus, Moesia Superior	Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius; not recognized by the Eastern Empire	February 8, 421 – September 2, 421	6 months and 25 days	September 2, 421 (aged ?) Natural causes
Joannes IMPERATOR CAESAR IOHANNES AVGVSTVS	?	A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; not recognized by the Eastern Empire	August 27, 423 – May 425	2 years	June or July 425 (aged ?) Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed
Valentinian III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PLACIDIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	July 2, 419, Ravenna, Italia	Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the regime of Joannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Joannes	October 23, 424 – March 16, 455	30 years, 4 months and 21 days	March 16, 455 (aged 35) Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus

455–476: Last emperors of the Western Empire

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Petronius Maximus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANICIVS PETRONIVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS	c. 396	Son-in-law of Theodosius II, proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the death of Valentinian III. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. He appointed his son Palladius as caesar.	March 17, 455 – May 31, 455	2 months and 14 days	May 31, 455 (aged 58/59) Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob
Avitus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS MAECILIVS FLAVIVS EPARCHIVS AVITVS AVGVSTVS	c. 385	Magister militum under Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after Petronius's death. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	July 9, 455 – October 17, 456	1 year, 3 months and 8 days	after 17 October 456 (aged 71) Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia; murdered at some point afterwards
Majorian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALERIVS MAIORIANVS AVGVSTVS	November 420	Proclaimed emperor by his troops. Recognized by the Eastern Empire at the behest of Ricimer.	April 457 – August 2, 461	4 years	August 7, 461 (aged 40) Deposed and beheaded on the orders of Ricimer.
Libius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LIBIVS SEVERVS SERPENTIVS AVGVSTVS	?, Lucania, Italia	Appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	November 461 – August 465	4 years	August 465 (aged 45) Probably poisoned by Ricimer
Anthemius IMPERATOR CAESAR PROCOPIVS ANTHEMIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 420	Son-in-law of Marcian, appointed emperor by Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer.	April 12, 467 – July 11, 472	5 years, 2 months and 29 days	July 11, 472 (aged 52) Executed by Ricimer or Gundobad (Ricimer's nephew).
Olybrius IMPERATOR CAESAR ANICIVS OLYBRIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 431	Son-in-law of Valentinian III; appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	July 11, 472 – November 2, 472	3 months and 22 days	November 2, 472 (aged 41) Natural causes
Glycerius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GLYCERIVS AVGVSTVS	?	Appointed emperor by Gundobad (Ricimer's successor). Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	March 473 – June 474	1 year	after 480 (aged ?) Deposed by Julius Nepos, became Bishop of Salona, time and manner of death unknown
Julius Nepos IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS NEPOS AVGVSTVS	c. 430	Nephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I (and nephew of Marcellinus) appointed emperor in opposition to Glycerius	June 474 – August 28, 475 (in Italy); – spring 480 (in Gaul and Dalmatia)	1 year/6 years	480 (aged 50) Deposed in Italy by Orestes, ruled in balance of Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in Italy by Odoacer to his death in 480.
Romulus Augustulus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ROMVLVS AVGVSTVS	c. 460[lower-alpha 2]	Appointed by his father, Orestes. Listed as an emperor by historical convention. His rule never extended beyond portions of the Italian peninsula. Not recognized by Eastern Emperor Zeno.	October 31, 475 – September 4, 476 (in Italy)	10 months and 4 days	Unknown. Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the separate Western Empire; most likely lived out his life in obscurity on a private villa.

Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire.

Eastern Emperors

379–457: Theodosian dynasty

Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania	Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II	January 19, 379 – January 17, 395	16 years and 16 days	January 17, 395 (aged 48) Natural causes
Arcadius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 377, Hispania	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Theodosius in January 383; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 17, 395 – May 1, 408	13 years	May 1, 408 (aged 31) Natural causes
Theodosius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	April 10, 401, Constantinople	Son of Arcadius; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Arcadius in 402; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 402 – July 28, 450	48 years	July 28, 450 (aged 49) Injuries suffered during a hunting accident
Marcian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCIANVS AVGVSTVS	396, Thrace or Illyria	Nominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, ruled alongside her 450-453 and later alone	November 25, 450 – January 25, 457	7 years	January 457 (aged 65) Gout

457–518: Leonid dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Leo I the Thracian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	c. 400, Dacia	Chosen by the army	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	17 years	18 January 474 (aged 73) Dysentery
Leo II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	c. 467, Constantinople	Grandson of Leo I	18 January – 17 November 474	9 months	17 November 474 (aged 7) Cause unknown, possibly poisoned
Zeno IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ZENO AVGVSTVS	c. 425, Isauria	Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474.	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	17 years	9 April 491 (aged 66) Dysentery or epilepsy
Basiliscus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS with Marcus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCVS AVGVSTVS	?	Seized throne from Zeno, Basiliscus appointed his son Marcus co-emperor at some point in 475.	9 January 475 – August 476	1 year, 7 months	476/477 Starved to death in Limnae (in Cappadocia) by Zeno
Anastasius I Dicorus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 430, Dyrrhachium	Son-in-law of Leo I	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	27 years	9 July 518 (aged 87) Natural causes

518–602: Justinian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Justin I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 at Bederiana (Justiniana Prima), Dardania	Elected by army	July 518 – 1 August 527	9 years	1 August 527 (aged 77) Natural causes
Justinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 at Tauresium (Taor), Dardania	Nephew of Justin I	1 August 527 – 13/14 November 565	38 years	13/14 November 565 (aged 83) Natural causes
Justin II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520	Nephew of Justinian I	14 November 565 – 5 October 578	13 years	5 October 578 (aged 58) Natural causes, after insanity
Tiberius II Constantine IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 535	Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574	5 October 578 – 14 August 582	3 years, 10 months	14 August 582 (aged 62) Natural causes
Maurice IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAURICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS with Theodosius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia	Son-in-law of Tiberius II, appointed his son Theodosius (born in August 4 583/585) co-emperor in 590	14 August 582 – 22 November 602	20 years	27 November 602 (aged 63) Executed, Theodosius executed a few days later by supporters of Phocas

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Phocas IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PHOCAS AVGVSTVS	?	Seized throne	23 November 602 – 4 October 610	8 years	5 October 610 Executed

610–695: Heraclian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 575, Cappadocia	Revolt	5 October 610 – 11 February 641	30 years	11 February, 641 (aged 65 or 66) Natural causes
Constantine III (Ἡράκλειος νέος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR HERACLIVS NOVVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	3 May 612, Constantinople	Son of Heraclius	11 February – 24/26 May 641	3 months	24/26 May 641 (aged 28) Tuberculosis
Heraklonas (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS with Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS and Martinus (Φλάβιος Μαρτίνος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS MARTINVS AVGVSTVS	3 May 626, Constantinople	Son of Heraclius; his brothers Tiberius and Martinus briefly served as co-emperors.	11 February 641 – September 641	7 months	unknown, but probably before 642
Constans II (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	7 November 630	Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor.	September 641 – 15 September 668	27 years	15 September 668 (aged 37) Assassinated
Constantine IV (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS and Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	652, Constantinople	Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681.	15 September 668 – 14 September 685 659 – 681 (Heraclius & Tiberius)	17 years 22 years (Heraclius & Tiberius)	14 September 685 (aged 33) Dysentery
Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	668 or 669, Constantinople	Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681	14 September 685–695	10 years (1st reign)	11 December 711 (aged 42) Killed by the army

695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Leontios (Λεόντιος Αὔγουστος) LEONTIVS AVGVSTVS[11]	Isauria	Revolt	695–698	3 years	Executed in February 706
Tiberios III Apsimaros (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	Pamphylia	Revolt	698–705	7 years	Executed in February 706
Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (second reign) with Tiberius (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS[12]	668 or 669, Constantinople	Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706.	August 705 – December 711	6 years (2nd reign)	11 December 711 (aged 42) Both killed by the army
Philippikos Bardanes (Φιλιππικὸς Αὔγουστος) FILEPICVS AVGVSTVS[13]	Pergamon	Revolt	December 711 – 3 June 713	1 year, 6 months	713
Anastasios II (Αρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος Αὔγουστος) ARTEMIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS[14]	?	Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers	June 713 – November 715	2 years, 5 months	718, during attempt to regain the throne
Theodosius III (Θεοδόσιος Αὔγουστος) THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS[15]	?	Chosen by troops	May 715 – 25 March 717	2 years	Unknown. Became a monk

717–802: Isaurian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Leo III the Isaurian (Λέων)	c. 685, Germanikeia, Commagene	Rebellion	25 March 717 – 18 June 741	24 years	June 741 (age 56) Edema
Constantine V (Κωνσταντῖνος)	July 718, Constantinople	Son of Leo III	18 June 741 – 14 September 775	34 years	14 September 775 (aged 57) Carbuncle
Artabasdos (Ἀρτάβασδος) with Nikephoros (Νικηφόρος)	?	Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742	June 741/742 – 2 November 743	1 year, 4 months	Unknown
Leo IV the Khazar (Λέων)	750, Constantinople	Son of Constantine V	14 September 775 – 8 September 780	5 years	780 (age 30) Tuberculosis
Constantine VI (Κωνσταντῖνος)	771, Constantinople	Son of Leo IV	8 September 780 – August 797	17 years	797 (age 26) After blinding by Irene
Irene of Athens (Εἰρήνη)	c. 752, Athens	Regent during minority of Constantine VI. Seized throne from son in 797. First Byzantine empress regnant.	August 797 – 31 October 802	5 years	9 August 803 (aged 51)

802–813: Nikephorian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Nikephoros I (Νικηφόρος)	?	Rebellion	31 October 802 – 26 July 811	9 years	26 July 811 After the Battle of Pliska
Staurakios (Σταυράκιος)	After 778	Son of Nikephoros I	26 July 811 – 2 October 811	4 months	January 11 812 (age ~30) Gangrene
Michael I Rangabe (Μιχαὴλ Ῥαγγαβέ) with Theophylact (Θεοφύλακτος)	c. 770	Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, appointed his son Theophylact (born c. 793) as co-emperor on 25 December 811	2 October 811 – 22 June 813	1 year, 8 months	January 11 844 (age ~74) In a monastery on Prote Island, Theophylact died in a monastery on Plate Island on January 15 849

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Leo V the Armenian (Λέων) with Constantine (Κωνσταντῖνος)	c. 775	Rebellion, appointed his son Symbatios as co-emperor under the name Constantine on Christmas 813	11 July 813 – 25 December 820	7 years	25 December 820 (age ~45) Murdered by successor's conspirators, Constantine died in exile in monastery on Prote Island at a later date

820–867: Amorian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Michael II (Μιχαὴλ)	c. 775	Chosen after murder of predecessor	25 December 820 – 2 October 829	9 years	2 October 829 (age ~54)
Theophilos (Θεόφιλος)	805	Only son of Michael II and co-emperor since 821	2 October 829 – 20 January 842	13 years	20 January 842 (age 37) Unknown disease
Michael III (Μιχαὴλ)	19 January 840, Constantinople	Son of Theophilos	20 January 842 – 23 September 867	25 years	23 September 867 Assassinated by successor

867–1056: Macedonian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Basil I the Macedonian (Βασίλειος)	811, Macedonia	Previous co-emperor, full emperor upon death of predecessor.	867 – 29 August 886	19 years	29 August 886 (age 75)
Leo VI the Wise (Λέων	19 September 866, Constantinople	Son of Basil I (potentially in reality the son of Michael III), co-emperor since 870.	886 – 11 May 912	26 years	11 May 912 (age 45)
Alexander (Ἀλέξανδρος)	23 November 870	Son of Basil I, co-emperor since 879.	11 May 912 – 6 June 913	1 year, 1 month	6 June 913 (age 42) Exhaustion after a game of tzykanion
Constantine VII (Κωνσταντῖνος)	17/18 May 905	Son of Leo VI, co-emperor since 908.	6 June 913 – 9 November 959	46 years	9 November 959 (age 54), Constantinople Possibly poisoned by his son Romanos II
Romanos I Lekapenos (Ῥωμανὸς Λεκαπηνός) with Christopher Lekapenos (Χριστόφορος Λακαπηνός) and Stephen Lekapenos (Στέφανος Λακαπηνός) and Constantine Lekapenos (Κωνσταντίνος Λακαπηνός)	c. 870, Lakape	Regent for the young Constantine VII, crowned himself senior emperor during Constantine VII's minority. Proclaimed his three sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as co-emperors. Was overthrown by Stephen in 944, who briefly ruled as senior emperor (for a few weeks) until he himself was overthrown by Constantine VII.	17 December 920 – 16 December 944 20 May 921 – August 931 (Christopher) 924–945 (Stephen & Constantine)	24 years 10 years (Christopher) 21 years (Stephen & Constantine)	15 June 948 (age 77-78) In a monastery as a monk after having been overthrown. Christopher died in August of 931. Both Stephen and Constantine died in exile as monks; Stephen on Easter 963 on Lesbos and Constantine in 946-948 on Samothrace trying to escape exile and reclaim imperial power
Romanos II (Ῥωμανὸς ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος)	c. 938	Son of Constantine VII	9 November 959 – 15 March 963	4 years	15 March 963 (age 24-25) Possibly poisoned
Nikephoros II Phokas (Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς)	c. 912	Chosen by the army, acted as senior emperor during the regency of young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII	16 August 963 – 11 December 969	6 years	11 December 969 (age 56-57), Constantinople Assassinated by successor John I Tzimiskes
John I Tzimiskes (Ἰωάννης Τζιμισκής)	c. 925	Nephew of Nikephoros II Phokas, succeeded as senior emperor and regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII	11 December 969 – 10 January 976	7 years	10 January 976 (age 50-51), Constantinople Poisoned by Imperial chamberlain Basil Lekapenos
Basil II (Βασίλειος)	958, Constantinople	Eldest son of Romanos II	10 January 976 – 15 December 1025	49 years	15 December 1025 (age 67-68), Constantinople
Constantine VIII (Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος)	960, Constantinople	Second son of Romanos II, co-emperor since 962.	15 December 1025 – 15 November 1028	3 years	15 November 1028 (age 68), Constantinople
Zoe Porphyrogenita (Ζωὴ ἡ Πορφυρογέννητη)	c. 978, Constantinople	Daughter of Constantine VIII, succeeded on her father's death along with her sister Theodora. Her three husbands, Romanos III (1028–1034), Michael IV (1034–1041) and Constantine IX (1042–1050) ruled alongside her.	15 November 1028 – June 1050	22 years	June 1050 (age 72), Constantinople
Romanos III Argyros (Ῥωμανὸς Ἀργυρός)	968	Chosen by Constantine VIII to marry his daughter Zoe and succeed him as emperor.	15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034	6 years	11 April 1034 (age 65-66), Constantinople Allegedly murdered
Michael IV the Paphlagonian (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Παφλαγών)	1010	Succeeded Romanos III as Zoe's husband and emperor.	11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041	7 years	10 December 1041 (age 31), Constantinople Died after a long illness.
Michael V Kalaphates (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Καλαφάτης)	1015	Nephew and adopted son of Michael IV.	10 December 1041 – 20 April 1042	5 months	24 August, 1042 (age 27), Constantinople Deposed, blinded, castrated and tonsured after attempting to sideline Zoe and her sister Theodora.
Theodora Porphyrogenita (Θεοδώρα ἡ Πορφυρογέννητος)	c. 980	Younger sister of Zoe, raised to co-empress in 1042.	19 April 1042 – 31 August 1056	14 years	31 August 1056 (age 75-76), Constantinople Died after sudden illness.
Constantine IX Monomachos (Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος)	c. 1000	Zoe's third husband	11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055	13 years	11 January 1055 (age ~55), Constantinople Died after illness.

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Michael VI Bringas (Μιχαὴλ Βρίγγας)	?	Chosen as successor by Empress Theodora	September 1056 – 31 August 1057	1 year	1059, confined to a monastery after having been deposed by successor.

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Isaac I Komnenos (Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός)	c. 1005	Rebellion	5 June 1057 – 22 November 1059	2 years	c. 1061 after having voluntarily abdicated.

1059–1081: Doukid dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Constantine X Doukas (Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας)	1006	Chosen successor of Isaac I Komnenos	24 November 1059 – 22 May 1067	8 years	22 May 1067 (aged 61)
Michael VII Doukas (Μιχαὴλ Δούκας) with Andronikos Doukas (Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας) and Konstantios Doukas (Κωνστάντιος Δούκας) and Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας)	1050	Son of Constantine X Doukas and co-emperor since 1059, resigned the throne in 1078. Reigned alongside his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios as co-emperors. Andronikos died in the 1070s while Konstantios briefly succeeded Michael as senior emperor before being handed over to the usurper Nikephoros III and exiled. Michael's son Constantine was also raised to co-emperor in 1074.	22 May 1067 – 31 March 1078 1068 – 1070s (Andronikos) 1060–1078 (Konstantios) 1074–1078 (Constantine)	11 years 18 years (Konstantios) 4 years (Constantine)	1090 (aged ~40), Constantinople, Konstantios died in the Battle of Dyrrhachium on 18 October 1081, having been recalled as a general by Alexios I. Constantine was later raised to co-emperor again under Alexios I and died in 1095
Romanos IV Diogenes (Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης)	1032	Married to Constantine X's widow and senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X	1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071	3 years	1072 (age 42), after having been deposed, blinded and exiled
Nikephoros III Botaneiates (Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης)	1001	Rebellion	31 March 1078 – 4 April 1081	3 years	10 December 1081 (age 80), after having been deposed and exiled to a monastery

1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Alexios I Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) with Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας) (second co-emperorship)	1056	Rebellion, nephew of Isaac I Komnenos, appointed Constantine Doukas (a previous co-emperor under Michael VII) as co-emperor in 1081. Replaced Constantine with his own son John II in 1087.	4 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 1081 – 1087 (Constantine)	37 years 6 years (Constantine, 2nd co-emperorship)	15 August 1118 (age 70)
John II Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός) with Alexios Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός)	13 September 1087, Constantinople	Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since 1087, appointed his son Alexios co-emperor in 1122	15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 1122 – 1142 (Alexios)	25 years 20 years (Alexios)	8 April 1143 (age 55), Cilicia Accidentally cut himself on a poisoned arrow. Alexios died in Attaleia on 2 August 1142 of a fever
Manuel I Komnenos (Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός)	28 November, 1118, Constantinople	Son of John II	1143 – 24 September 1180	37 years	24 September 1180 (age 61)
Alexios II Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός)	14 September 1169, Constantinople	Son of Manuel I	24 September 1180 – October 1183	3 years	October 1183 (age 14), Constantinople Deposed and killed by successor
Andronikos I Komnenos (Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός) with John Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός)	c. 1118	Nephew of John II (son of his brother Isaac), uncle of Alexios II, appointed his son John as co-emperor in November 1183	October 1183 – 12 September 1185	2 years	12 September 1185 (age 66-67), Constantinople Overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising, John also seized and probably killed

1185–1204: Angelid dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος)	September 1156	Rebellion	1185–1195	10 years	25 January 1204 (age 47), Constantinople Possibly shock or poison
Alexios III Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος)	c. 1153	Rebellion, elder brother of Isaac II	1195 – 17/18 July 1203	8 years	1211 (age 58), in captivity in the Empire of Nicaea
Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος) (second reign)	September 1156	Restored to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his son Alexios IV	18 July 1203 – 27/28 January 1204	6 months	25 January 1204 (age 47), Constantinople Possibly shock or poison
Alexios IV Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος)	c. 1182	Raised to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his father Isaac II	1 August 1203 – 27/28 January 1204	6 months	8 February 1204 (age 21-22), Constantinople Strangled by successor
Alexios V Doukas (Ἀλέξιος Δούκας ὁ Μούρτζουφλος)	c. 1140	Coup in the Imperial Palace, son-in-law of Alexios III	5 February 1204 – 13 April 1204	5 months	December 1204 (age 64), Constantinople Captured by crusaders of the newly founded Latin Empire and publicly executed

1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty

Note: Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when Constantinople was occupied by the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Laskarid dynasty of the Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because they had the support of the (Orthodox) Patriarch of Constantinople and managed to re-take Constantinople.

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Theodore I Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις)	c. 1174, Constantinople	His brother Constantine Laskaris was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day the city fell to the Crusaders; he later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins. Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in 1208.	1205– November 1221	21 years	November 1221 (age 48)
John III Doukas Vatatzes (Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης)	c. 1192, Didymoteicho	Son-in-law of Theodore I	15 December 1221 – 3 November 1254	33 years	3 November 1254 (age 62), Nymphaion
Theodore II Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις)	c. 1222, Nicaea	Son of John III	3 November 1254– 18 August 1258	4 years	18 August 1258 (age 36), Magnesia Epilepsy
John IV Laskaris (Ἰωάννης Λάσκαρις)	25 December 1250	Son of Theodore II	18 August 1258– 25 December 1261	3 years	c. 1305 (age 55), Constantinople Blinded and imprisoned by successor in 1261, died in captivity

1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Michael VIII Palaiologos (Μιχαὴλ Παλαιολόγος)	1223	Senior emperor and regent of John IV Laskaris, grandnephew of John III by marriage and great-grandson of Alexios III	1 January 1259– 11 December 1282	23 years, 11 months	11 December 1282 (age 58), Pachomion, near Lysimachia
Andronikos II Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	25 March 1259, Nicaea	Son of Michael VIII	11 December 1282– 24 May 1328	45 years, 5 months	13 February 1332 (age 72), Constantinople
Michael IX Palaiologos (Μιχαήλ Παλαιολόγος)	17 April 1277, Constantinople	Son of Andronikos II, reigned alongside him as co-emperor with full imperial style	1295– 12 October 1320	25 years	12 October 1320 (age 43), Thessaloniki
Andronikos III Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	25 March 1297, Constantinople	Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor in 1316 and rival emperor since 1321. Deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and reigned as sole emperor	24 May 1328– 15 June 1341	13 years	15 June 1341 (age 44), Constantinople Possibly chronic malaria
John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος)	18 June 1332, Didymoteicho	Son of Andronikos III	15 June 1341– 12 August 1376	38 years (1st reign)	16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople
John VI Kantakouzenos (Ἰωάννης Καντακουζηνός) with Matthew Kantakouzenos (Ματθαίος Ασάνης Καντακουζηνός)	1292, Constantinople	Maternal relative of the Palaiologi, declared co-emperor by John V in 1341 and recognized as senior emperor in 1347 following a civil war. Appointed his son Matthew as co-emperor in 1353	8 February 1347– 4 December 1354 1353 – 1357 (Matthew)	7 years 4 years (Matthew)	15 June 1383 (aged 90 or 91), deposed and in exile as a monk in the Peloponnese, Matthew was defeated in 1357 and later served as the governor of the Morea until his death on the same day as his father
Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	11 April 1348, Constantinople	Son of John V, co-emperor since 1352, deposed his father John V in 1376	12 August 1376– 1 July 1379	3 years	28 June 1385 (age 37), Selymbria
John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (second reign)	18 June 1332, Didymoteicho	Restored to the throne after overthrowing his son Andronikos IV	1 July 1379– 14 April 1390	11 years (2nd reign)	16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople
John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος)	1370	Rebellion, son and co-emperor of Andronikos IV, deposed his grandfather John V	14 April 1390– 17 September 1390	5 months	22 September 1408 (aged 38), Thessaloniki
John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (third reign)	18 June 1332, Didymoteicho	Restored to the throne after overthrowing his grandson John VII	17 September 1390– 16 February 1391	5 months (3rd reign)	16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople
Manuel II Palaiologos (Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος) with John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) and Andronikos V Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	27 June 1350, Constantinople	Son of John V, co-emperor since 1373. John VII Palaiologos, who previously usurped the throne in 1390, was proclaimed co-emperor in 1403, keeping the title until his death in 1408. John VII also proclaimed his son, Andronikos V, co-emperor but Andronikos died before his father, in 1407. The imperial status of John and Andronikos was purely honorary.	16 February 1391– 21 July 1425 1403 – 1408 (John VII) 1403 – 1407 (Andronikos V)	34 years 5 years (John VII) 4 years (Andronikos V)	21 July 1425 (age 75), Constantinople John died 22 September 1408 at Thessaloniki, Andronikos died aged 7 on September 24th, 1407.
John VIII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος)	18 December 1392	Son of Manuel II, co-emperor since 1416	21 July 1425– 31 October 1448	23 years	31 October 1448 (age 55), Constantinople
Constantine XI Palaiologos (Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος)	8 February 1405, Constantinople	Son of Manuel II	6 January 1449– 29 May 1453	4 years, 4 months, 23 days	29 May 1453 (age 48), Constantinople Refused to surrender Constantinople to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II and died fighting during the final Ottoman attack

Notes

The other claimants for the throne in the Year of the Five Emperors were Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, supported by the Syrian and British legions respectively. Although not completely defeated until 197, they were not formally accepted by the senate and were therefore not technically reigning emperors.
Romulus Agustulus biographic details.

References

Citations

Rubicon. Holland, T. Abacus, 978-0349115634
Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678.
Herrin, Judith (2011-03-12). "The Glories of Byzantium". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-12-10.
Asimov, [title?], p. 198.
Lee, pp. 163–164.
Goldsworthy, pp. 425–440
Breeze & Dobson, pp. 251–255
Moss, Henry, The Birth of the Middle Ages Clarendon Press (London) 1935; Folio Society reprint (London) 1998; pp. 24-28, 281-284.
"Roman Emperors After Theodosius I". Retrieved 30 September 2014.
Gerard Gertoux (2015). Herod the Great and Jesus: Chronological, Historical and Archaeological Evidence. p. 52. ISBN 9781329698161.
"(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
"Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
"Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
"Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
"Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

Sources

Ancient sources

Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Classics, Michael Grant Publications Ltd, 1971, Reprinted 1985, ISBN 0-14-044060-7

Modern sources

David J. Breeze, Brian Dobson Hadrian's Wall 4th Edition, Penguin, 2000, ISBN 0-14-027182-1
Clive Carpenter, The Guinness Book of Kings Rulers and Statesmen, Guinness Superlatives Ltd, 1978, ISBN 0-900424-46-X
Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, Phoenix, 2010, ISBN 978-0-7538-2692-8
Min Lee (editor), Larousse Pockect Guide Kings and Queens, Larousse, 1995 ISBN 0-7523-0032-6
Martha Ross, Rulers and Governments of the World, Vol.1 Earliest Times to 1491, Bowker, 1978, ISBN 0-85935-021-5
Chris Scarre, Brandon Shaw, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, Thames & Hudson, 1995, Reprinted 2001, ISBN 0-500-05077-5
R. F. Tapsell, Monarchs Rulers Dynasties and Kingdoms of The World, Thames & Hudson, 1981, Reprinted 1987, ISBN 0-500-27337-5
Walter E. Kaegi, Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, illustrated edition, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1

External links

The Imperial Index: The Rulers of the Roman Empire From Augustus to Constantine XI Palaeologus.
List of the Roman Emperors 27 BC – 395 AD
List of Roman Emperors
The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
Timeline of Roman Emperors and Empresses

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[septimus-11] The other claimants for the throne in the Year of the Five Emperors were Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, supported by the Syrian and British legions respectively. Although not completely defeated until 197, they were not formally accepted by the senate and were therefore not technically reigning emperors.

[12] Romulus Agustulus biographic details.

[Holland-1] Rubicon. Holland, T. Abacus, 978-0349115634

[2] Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678.

[3] Herrin, Judith (2011-03-12). "The Glories of Byzantium". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-12-10.

[4] Asimov, [title?], p. 198.

[Lee-5] Lee, pp. 163–164.

[Gold-6] Goldsworthy, pp. 425–440

[Breeze-7] Breeze & Dobson, pp. 251–255

[8] Moss, Henry, The Birth of the Middle Ages Clarendon Press (London) 1935; Folio Society reprint (London) 1998; pp. 24-28, 281-284.

[9] "Roman Emperors After Theodosius I". Retrieved 30 September 2014.

[10] Gerard Gertoux (2015). Herod the Great and Jesus: Chronological, Historical and Archaeological Evidence. p. 52. ISBN 9781329698161.

[13] "(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[14] "Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[15] "Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[16] "Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[17] "Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

Roman and Byzantine emperors
Principate 27 BC – 235 AD	Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla with Geta Macrinus with Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander
Crisis 235–284	Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab with Philip II Decius with Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus with Saloninus and Valerian II Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus and Numerian Gallic Emperors: Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as Caesar
Dominate 284–395	Diocletian (whole empire) Diocletian (East) and Maximian (West) Diocletian (East) and Maximian (West) with Galerius (East) and Constantius Chlorus (West) as Caesares Galerius (East) and Constantius Chlorus (West) with Severus (West) and Maximinus II (East) as Caesares Galerius (East) and Severus (West) with Constantine the Great (West) and Maximinus II (East) as Caesares Galerius (East) and Maxentius (West) with Constantine the Great (West) and Maximinus II (East) as Caesares Galerius (East) and Licinius I (West) with Constantine the Great (West) and Maximinus II (East) as Caesares Maxentius (alone) Licinius I (West) and Maximinus II (East) with Constantine the Great (Self-proclaimed Augustus) and Valerius Valens Licinius I (East) and Constantine the Great (West) with Licinius II, Constantine II, and Crispus as Caesares (Martinian) Constantine the Great (whole empire) with son Crispus as Caesar Constantine II Constans I Magnentius with Decentius as Caesar Constantius II with Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian the Great Valens Gratian Valentinian II Magnus Maximus with Victor Theodosius the Great (Eugenius)
Western Empire 395–480	Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus with Palladius Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus
Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204	Arcadius Theodosius II Pulcheria Marcian Leo I the Thracian Leo II Zeno (first reign) Basiliscus with son Marcus as co-emperor Zeno (second reign) Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian the Great Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas
Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261	Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris
Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 1261–1453	Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos
Italics indicates a co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper.