Leitmotif

A leitmotif or leitmotiv[1] (/ˌlaɪtmoʊˈtiːf/) is a "short, constantly recurring musical phrase"[2] associated with a particular person, place, or idea. It is closely related to the musical concepts of idée fixe or motto-theme.[3] The spelling leitmotif is an anglicization of the German Leitmotiv (IPA: [ˈlaɪtmoˌtiːf]), literally meaning "leading motif", or "guiding motif". A musical motif has been defined as a "short musical idea ... melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic, or all three",[4] a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is characteristic of a composition: "the smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity."[5]

For the album of the same name, see Leitmotif (album).
Leitmotif associated with Siegfried's horn call in Richard Wagner's opera, Siegfried

In particular, such a motif should be "clearly identified so as to retain its identity if modified on subsequent appearances" whether such modification be in terms of rhythm, harmony, orchestration or accompaniment. It may also be "combined with other leitmotifs to suggest a new dramatic condition" or development.[6] The technique is notably associated with the operas of Richard Wagner, and most especially his Der Ring des Nibelungen, although he was not its originator and did not employ the word in connection with his work.

Although usually a short melody, it can also be a chord progression or even a simple rhythm. Leitmotifs can help to bind a work together into a coherent whole, and also enable the composer to relate a story without the use of words, or to add an extra level to an already present story.

By association, the word has also been used to mean any sort of recurring theme, (whether or not subject to developmental transformation) in literature, or (metaphorically) the life of a fictional character or a real person. It is sometimes also used in discussion of other musical genres, such as instrumental pieces, cinema, and video game music, sometimes interchangeably with the more general category of theme.

Classical music

Early instances in classical music

The use of characteristic, short, recurring motifs in orchestral music can be traced back to the early seventeenth century, such as L'Orfeo by Monteverdi. In French opera of the late eighteenth century (such as the works of Gluck, Grétry and Méhul), "reminiscence motif" can be identified, which may recur at a significant juncture in the plot to establish an association with earlier events. Their use, however, is not extensive or systematic. The power of the technique was exploited early in the nineteenth century by composers of Romantic opera, such as Carl Maria von Weber, where recurring themes or ideas were sometimes used in association with specific characters (e.g. Samiel in Der Freischütz is coupled with the chord of a diminished seventh).[3] The first use of the word leitmotif in print was by the critic Friedrich Wilhelm Jähns in describing Weber's work, although this was not until 1871.[6]

Motifs also figured occasionally in purely instrumental music of the Romantic period. The related idea of the musical idée fixe was coined by Hector Berlioz in reference to his Symphonie fantastique (1830). This purely instrumental, programmatic work (subtitled Episode in the Life of an Artist) features a recurring melody representing the object of the artist's obsessive affection and depicting her presence in various real and imagined situations.

Though perhaps not corresponding to the strict definition of leitmotif, several of Verdi's operas feature similar thematic tunes, often introduced in the overtures or preludes, and recurring to mark the presence of a character or to invoke a particular sentiment. In La forza del destino, the opening theme of the overture recurs whenever Leonora feels guilt or fear. In Il trovatore, the theme of the first aria by Azucena is repeated whenever she invokes the horror of how her mother was burnt alive and the devastating revenge she attempted then. In Don Carlos, there are at least three leitmotifs that recur regularly across the five acts: the first is associated with the poverty and suffering from war, the second is associated with prayers around the tomb of Carlos V, and the third is introduced as a duet between Don Carlo and the Marquis of Posa, thereafter accentuating sentiments of sincere friendship and loyalty.

Wagner
Siegfried's horn call leitmotif from the prologue to Act I of Wagner's opera Götterdämmerung, the fourth of his Ring cycle The theme is broader and more richly orchestrated than its earlier appearances, suggesting the emergence of Siegfried's heroic character.

Richard Wagner is the earliest composer most specifically associated with the concept of leitmotif. His cycle of four operas, Der Ring des Nibelungen (the music for which was written between 1853 and 1869), uses hundreds of leitmotifs, often related to specific characters, things, or situations. While some of these leitmotifs occur in only one of the operas, many recur throughout the entire cycle.[7][8] Wagner had raised the issue of how music could best unite disparate elements of the plot of a music drama in his essay Opera and Drama (1851); the leitmotif technique corresponds to this ideal.[9]

Some controversy surrounded the use of the word in Wagner's own circle: Wagner never authorised the use of the word leitmotiv, using words such as Grundthema (basic idea), or simply Motiv. His preferred name for the technique was Hauptmotiv (principal motif), which he first used in 1877;[2] the only time he used the word Leitmotiv, he referred to "so-called Leitmotivs".

The word gained currency with the overly literal interpretations of Wagner's music by Hans von Wolzogen, who in 1876 published a Leitfaden (guide or manual) to the Ring. In it he claimed to have isolated and named all of the recurring motifs in the cycle (the motif of "Servitude", the "Spear" or "Treaty" motif, etc.), often leading to absurdities or contradictions with Wagner's actual practice.[10] Some of the motifs he identified began to appear in the published musical scores of the operas, arousing Wagner's annoyance; his wife Cosima Wagner quoted him as saying "People will think all this nonsense is done at my request!".[11] In fact Wagner himself never publicly named any of his leitmotifs, preferring to emphasize their flexibility of association, role in the musical form, and emotional effect. The practice of naming leitmotifs nevertheless continued, featuring in the work of prominent Wagnerian critics Ernest Newman, Deryck Cooke and Robert Donington.[12]

The resulting lists of leitmotifs also attracted the ridicule of anti-Wagnerian critics and composers (such as Eduard Hanslick, Claude Debussy, and Igor Stravinsky). They identified the motif with Wagner's own approach to composing, mocking the impression of a musical "address book" or list of "cloakroom numbers" it created.[13]

After Wagner
The leitmotif associated with Salome herself in Richard Strauss's opera Salome

Since Wagner, the use of leitmotifs has been taken up by many other composers. Richard Strauss used the device in many of his operas and several of his symphonic poems. Despite his sometimes acerbic comments on Wagner, Claude Debussy utilized leitmotifs in his opera Pelléas et Mélisande (1902). Arnold Schoenberg used a complex set of leitmotifs in his choral work Gurre-Lieder (completed 1911). Alban Berg's opera Wozzeck (1914–1922) also utilizes leitmotifs.[14] The leitmotif was also a major feature of the opera The Immortal Hour by the English composer Rutland Boughton. His constantly recurrent, memorably tuneful leitmotifs contributed in no small way to the widespread popularity of the opera.

Critique of the leitmotif concept

The critic Theodor W. Adorno, in his book In Search of Wagner (written in the 1930s), expresses the opinion that the entire concept of the leitmotif is flawed. The motif cannot be both the bearer of expression and a musical "gesture", because that reduces emotional content to a mechanical process. He notes that "even in Wagner's own day the public made a crude link between the leitmotifs and the persons they characterised" because people's innate mental processes did not necessarily correspond with Wagner's subtle intentions or optimistic expectations. He continues:

The degeneration of the leitmotiv is implicit in this ... it leads directly to cinema music where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce heroes or situations so as to allow the audience to orient itself more easily.[15]

Entertainment

The main ideology behind Leitmotif is to create a sense of attachment to that particular sound that evokes audiences to feel particular emotions when that sound is repeated through the film. Leitmotifs in Adorno's "degenerated" sense frequently occur in film scores, and have since the early decades of sound film. One of the first people to implement Leitmotif in early sound films was Fritz Lang in his revolutionary hit M. Lang set the benchmark for sound film through his use of leitmotif, creating a different type of atmosphere in his films.

  • Erich Wolfgang Korngold's 1938 score for The Adventures of Robin Hood can be heard to attach particular themes and harmonies to individual characters: Robin, Will, Much, and Gisbourne are all accompanied by distinctive musical material.
  • One of the earliest audiovisual uses of leitmotif is in TV series Zorro (1957), in particular for the character Bernardo, Zorro's aid.
  • The instantly recognizable James Bond leitmotif originally created by Monty Norman and John Barry for the 1962 film Dr. No, which would be reused in almost every subsequent Bond film.
  • In the Mega Man series, the character Proto Man has a distinctive whistle.
  • In the Jaws franchise, the main "shark" theme, composed by John Williams in 1975. It is a suspenseful motif that is a simple alternating pattern of two notes, E and F.[16]
  • In the Star Wars series, composer John Williams used a large number of themes specifically associated with people and concepts (for example, a particular motif attaches to the presence of Darth Vader and another to the idea of the Force).[17]
  • The theme of Schindler's List, which is repeated throughout the film, is one of the most recognized contemporary film leitmotifs, particularly the violin solo.[18]
  • In The Abyss, Alan Silvestri creates a couple of motifs and cues associated with the aliens.
  • In Batman, Danny Elfman composes the heroic theme for the titular character, which is also used in the later film.[19]
  • In Titanic, composer James Horner used a number of recurring leitmotifs that are associated with the film's romance, tragedy and the disaster.[20]
  • Composed by Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard, Gladiator uses leitmotifs associated with the battle sequences, moods and characters.
  • The Mummy, composed by Jerry Goldsmith, and its sequel The Mummy Returns by Alan Silvestri, contains leitmotifs associated with romance, moods and characters.
  • In The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, composed by Howard Shore, the dramatic orchestral score has about a hundred leitmotifs recurring throughout, which are mostly associated with the protagonists, villains, locations, objects and moods.[21] Furthermore, Shore created over 65 new leitmotifs for The Hobbit film trilogy.[22]
  • The Shrek film series has a recurring sentimental theme, composed by Harry Gregson-Williams and John Powell, that is usually associated with the love between the titular character and Fiona.
  • Scored by Hans Zimmer, both The Ring and The Ring Two feature leitmotifs that are connected with certain characters, moods and locations.
  • In the Harry Potter film series, "Hedwig's Theme", composed by John Williams, is the dominant leitmotif for the film series and it has been interpolated throughout the rest of the Harry Potter film scores, including in those by Patrick Doyle, Nicholas Hooper, and Alexandre Desplat. In Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets, Williams makes use of principal motifs associated with characters, ideas and locations, which are repeated in both films.
  • Composed by Hans Zimmer, Klaus Badelt, and Geoff Zanelli, the Pirates of the Caribbean film series consists of several motifs and themes associated with the protagonists, villains and moods. One prominent motif is "He's a Pirate", which is associated with pirates in general and the heroic action sequences they are involved in.[23] Besides the general leitmotifs, specific characters such as Jack Sparrow, Davy Jones, Angelica, and Salazar each have their own unique motifs.
  • In the Saw franchise, the theme "Hello Zepp" is used throughout all of the films in all of the scores, as the series leitmotif, to indicate panic, fear, and to end the film on a more heroic but fearful note as the theme is used in all of the ending scores.
  • For the BBC's Sherlock, David Arnold and Michael Price composed incidental music and character leitmotifs, using synthesizers. However, tracks for the show were recorded using real musicians.[24]
  • The Dark Knight trilogy, composed by Hans Zimmer and James Newton-Howard, features several recurring themes and motifs for Batman, the villainous characters, and action scenes.[25]
  • The Marvel Cinematic Universe features many different leitmotifs, the most prominent being the main Avengers theme by Alan Silvestri. While some of the earlier themes have been mostly forgotten or dropped as the movies progressed, each of the many different composers left their mark on the franchise through their unique musical talents. Composers include Ramin Djawadi, Craig Armstrong, John Debney, Patrick Doyle, Alan Silvestri, Brian Tyler, Henry Jackman, Tyler Bates, Danny Elfman, Christophe Beck, Michael Giacchino, Mark Mothersbaugh, Ludwig Göransson, Pinar Toprak, Bear McCreary, Christopher Lennertz, Sean Callery, John Paesano, Adrian Younge, Trevor Morris, and Siddhartha Khosla.
  • In Avatar, James Horner uses a couple of leitmotifs related to the characters, romance, locations and creatures.[26]
  • The Game of Thrones series has several iconic leitmotifs, written by composer Ramin Djawadi.
  • Touhou character Sakuya Izayoi's original theme, 'Lunar Clock ~ Luna Dial', possessed a short melody that would later become the basis for her new theme, 'Flowering Night'.
  • The 2006 role-playing game Mother 3 uses the 'His Highness' theme extensively throughout the game to denote antagonists.[27]
  • Toby Fox's cult classic RPG Undertale was praised for its use of leitmotifs in relation to characters, emotions and locations.[28] Of 101 tracks on the official soundtrack, Game Score Fanfare on YouTube mentioned that only 12 were isolated, 'without a trace of any other music used in the game'.[29] Fox's later game Deltarune had newly written leitmotifs and recurring ones from Undertale in its soundtrack.

See also

References
  1. Whittall (2001)
  2. Kennedy (1987), Leitmotiv
  3. Kennedy (1987), 366
  4. Drabkin (1995)
  5. White (1976), p. 26–27.
  6. Warrack (1995)
  7. Millington (1992), 234–5
  8. Grout (2003), Chapter 22
  9. Burbidge and Sutton, (1979), pp. 345–6
  10. See Thorau, 2009
  11. Cosima Wagner,(1980), II, 697 (1 August 1881)
  12. See e.g. Donington (1979), passim
  13. Rehding (2007), 348
  14. New Grove Dictionary, Leitmotif
  15. Adorno (2005), pp.34–36
  16. Matessino, Michael (1999-09-24). "Letter in response to "A Study of Jaws' Incisive Overture To Close Off the Century"". filmscoremonthly.com. Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2006-12-17.
  17. "Untitled Document". depauw.edu.
  19. Doerschuk, Robert L. (October 1989). "Danny Elfman – The Agony & The Ectasy of Scoring Batman". Keyboard. Vol. 15 no. 10. GPI Publications. pp. 82–95. Retrieved January 12, 2018.
  20. "James Horner – Titanic". Mfiles. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  21. Doug Adams, "Music of the Lord of the Rings Films"
  22. "NZSO to record Desolation of Smaug soundtrack". TheOneRing.net. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  23. Schweiger, Daniel (May 16, 2011). "Audio: On The Score With Hans Zimmer". Film Music Magazine. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
  24. "Unlocking Sherlock", documentary included on the Series 1 DVD/Blu-Ray release
  25. D., Spence (June 13, 2005). "Batman Vs. Hans Zimmer and James Newton Howard Part 2". IGN. Retrieved December 1, 2006.
  26. Jim Dorey (2008-04-02). "Na'vi Alien Language Incorporated In 'Avatar' Music Soundtrack". MarketSaw Blog. Archived from the original on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-21.
  27. "Mother 3 'His Highness' Leitmotifs". Youtube. 2016-10-09. Retrieved 2020-01-04.
  28. "An Examination of Leitmotifs and Their Use to Shape Narrative in UNDERTALE – Part 1 of 2". Jason M. Yu. 2016-04-01. Retrieved 2018-12-27.
  29. Game Score Fanfare, How the song "Undertale" Hits Home | Game Score Fanfare, retrieved 2018-12-27

Sources and further reading
  • Theodor Adorno, tr. Rodney Livingstone, In Search of Wagner, London 2005 (ISBN 978-1-84467-344-5)
  • Peter Burbidge and Richard Sutton, The Wagner Companion, London:, 1979. ISBN 0-571-11450-4
  • Robert Donington, Wagner's "Ring" and Its Symbols, London: , 1979
  • William Drabkin, "Motif", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, London 1995, vol. 12
  • Donald Jay Grout and Hermine Weigel Williams (2003). A Short History of Opera (4th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11958-5
  • H. Rosenthal and J. Warrack (eds.), Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979
  • Michael Kennedy, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-19-311320-6.
  • Barry Millington (ed.), The Wagner Compendium, London: 1992
  • Alexander Rehding, review of Christian Thorau, "Semantisierte Sinnlichkeit: Studien zu Rezeption und Zeichenstruktur der Leitmotivtechnik Richard Wagners" in Opera Quarterly vol. 23 (Oxford, 2007) pp. 348–351
  • Christian Thorau, "Guides for Wagnerites: Leitmotifs and Wagnerian Listening", in T. Grey, (ed.), Richard Wagner and his World, (pp. 133–150) Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009 ISBN 978-0-691-14366-8
  • Cosima Wagner, tr. Geoffrey Skelton, Cosima Wagner's Diaries (2 vols.), London: 1980.
  • John Warrack, "Leitmotif", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music, London 1995, vol. 10
  • John D. White, The Analysis of Music, (1976). ISBN 0-13-033233-X
  • Arnold Whittall, "Leitmotif", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001.
  • Doug Adams, "The Music of the Lord of the Rings Films", (2010) Carpentier: ISBN 978-0-7390-7157-1
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