Krishnaism

Krishnaism, or Kṛṣṇaism, is an Hindu tradition related to Vaishnavism, but centering on the devotion to Krishna as the Absolute, the ultimate reality and the source of all reality.[1][2]

Krishnaism
Krishna holding Govardhan hill. From the Smithsonian Institution collections.

Krishnaism originated in the late centuries BCE from the followers of the heroic Vāsudeva Krishna, which amalgamated several centuries later, in the early centuries CE, with the worshipers of the "divine child" Bala Krishna and the Gopala-Krishna traditions.[3][4] It is closely related to, and find its origin in, Bhagavatism.[5]

Krishnaism is a non-Vedic tradition in origin, but it further developed its appeal towards orthodox believers through the syncretism of these traditions with the Mahabharata epic.[6] In particular Krishnaism incorporated more or less superficially the Vedic supreme deity Vishnu, who appears in the Rigveda.[6] Krishnaism further becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the Medieval period.

The central text of Krishnaism is the Bhagavad Gita.[7][8][9]

History

Krishnaism originates in the early centuries CE, arising from an amalgamation of the heroic Vāsudeva Krishna, the "divine child" Bala Krishna and the Gopala traditions, and syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with the Mahabharata canon, thus affiliating itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox establishment. Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period.

Origins
Vāsudeva-Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, circa 190-180 BCE.[10][11] This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.[12]

Northern India
The first inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE after his conversion to Bhagavata Monotheism.
See also: Vāsudeva and Bala Krishna

Early Krishnaism started with the cult of the heroic Vāsudeva Krishna, which, several centuries later, was amalgamated with the cult of the "divine child" Bala Krishna and the Gopala traditions. While Vishnu is attested already in the Rigveda, the development of Krishnaism appears to take place via the worship of Vasudeva in the final centuries BCE. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini (4th century BCE) who, in his Astadhyayi, explained the word vasudevaka as a bhakta (devotee) of Vasudeva.[13][14][15] At that time, Vāsudeva was already considered as a demi-God, as he appears in Pāṇini's writings in conjunction with Arjuna as an object of worship, since Pāṇini explains that a vāsudevaka is a devotee (bhakta) of Vāsudeva.[16][17][18]

A sect which flourished with the decline of Vedism was centred on Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas.[19] Worship of Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas, took sectarian form as the Pancaratra and earlier as Bhagavata religions. This sect has at a later stage merged with the sect of Narayana.

The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic.[20]

By the time of its incorporation into the Mahabharata canon during the early centuries CE, Krishnaism began to affiliate itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to orthodoxy, in particular aligning itself with Rigvedic Vishnu.[21] At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God.[19] The appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism.[22]

Southern India

According to Hardy,[note 1] there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions.[23] South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery.[25] Early writings in Dravidian culture such as Manimekalai and the Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his brother, and favourite female companions in the similar terms.[25] Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of the Tamil alvars.[26]

Devotion to southern Indian Mal (Tirumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu.[27] The Alvars, whose name can be translated "sages" or "saints", were devotees of Mal. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the Avatars.[27] Yet, according to Hardy the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring to Mal or Mayon.[23]

Early medieval traditions
Further information: Bhakti movement
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), believed to be an expansion of Krishna in the mood of Radha.

By the Early Medieval period, Krishnaism had risen to a major current of Vaishnavism.[21]

Vaishnavism in the 8th century came into contact with the Advaita doctrine of Adi Shankara. Vasudeva has been interpreted by Adi Shankara, using the earlier Vishnu Purana as a support, as meaning the "supreme self" or Vishnu, dwelling everywhere and in all things,[28] although many other schools of Hindu philosophy have a different interpretation of this key concept. There were counter-movements in South India to Shankara's theory of Brahman in particular, Ramanuja in the 11th century and Madhva in the 13th, building on the devotional tradition of the Alvars (Shri Vaishnavas).

The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism emerges in the 9th or 10th century, and is based on the Bhagavata Purana.

In North India, Krishnaism gave rise to various late Medieval movements: Nimbarka and Ramananda in the 14th century, Kabir and Sankaradeva in the 15th and Vallabha and Caitanya in the 16th.[1]

Historically, it was Caitanya Mahaprabhu who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a sannyasi.[1]

Modern traditions

The cult of Krishna later evolved in modern times to form the Hare Krishna Mouvement, founded by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.[1]

Beliefs
Relationship between different forms of Krishna as paripurna avatara of Vishnu and as Svayam Bhagavan.

Vishnuism and Krishnaism

The term "Krishnaism" has been used to describe the sects focused on Krishna, while "Vishnuism" may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an Avatar, rather than a transcended Supreme Being.[29] Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme being, manifested himself as Krishna, while Krishnaism accepts Krishna to be Svayam bhagavan or "authentic", that manifested himself as Vishnu. As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of the early attempts to make philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses.[30] In common language the term Krishnaism is not often used, as many prefer a wider term "Vaishnavism", which appeared to relate to Vishnu, more specifically as Vishnu-ism.

Krishnaismt is often also called Bhagavatism, after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana, etc.[31]

Krishna
Main article: Krishna

Vaishnavism is a monotheistic religion, centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. It is sometimes described as a"polymorphic monotheism", since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. In Krishnaism this deity is Krishna, sometimes referred as intimate deity - as compared with the numerous four-armed forms of Narayana or Vishnu.[32]

Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism. Krishna is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a flute or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita.[33]

Krishna and the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different Hindu philosophical and theological traditions, where it is believed that God appears to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular desires. These forms include the different avataras of Krishna described in traditional Vaishnava texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the different expansions of the Svayam bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community.[34][35] Many of the Hindu scriptures sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, while some core features of the view on Krishna are shared by all.[36]

Scriptures

Common scriptures
Jiva Gosvami's Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas summarize Vedic sources of Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition's accretion of the concept Krishna to be the supreme Lord, bhagavān svayam, based on paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavata Purana.
[37]
Main articles: Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita

While every tradition of Krishnaism has its own canon, in all Krishna is accepted as a teacher of the path in the scriptures Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana.[38]

As Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita, establishing the basis of Krishnaism himself:

  • "And of all yogins, he who full of faith worships Me, with his inner self abiding in Me, him, I hold to be the most attuned (to me in Yoga)."[39]
  • "After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection."[40]

In Gaudiya Vaishnava, Vallabha Sampradaya, Nimbarka sampradaya and the old Bhagavat school, Krishna is believed to be fully represented in his original form in the Bhagavata Purana, that at the end of the list of avataras concludes with the following assertion:[41]

All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Sri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead (Svayam Bhagavan).[42]

Not all commentators on the Bhagavata Purana stress this verse, however a majority of Krishna-centered and contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as a significant statement.[43] Jiva Goswami has called it Paribhasa-sutra, the "thesis statement" upon which the entire book or even theology is based.[44][45]

In another place of the Bhagavata Purana (10.83.5-43) those who are named as wives of Krishna all explain to Uraupadi how the 'Lord himself' (Svayam Bhagavan, Bhagavata Purana 10.83.7) came to marry them. As they relate these episodes, several of the wives speak of themselves as Krishna's devotees.[46] In the tenth canto the Bhagavata Purana describes svayam bhagavans Krishna's childhood pastimes as that of a much-loved child raised by cowherds in Vrindavan, near to the Yamuna River. The young Krishna enjoys numerous pleasures, such as thieving balls of butter or playing in the forest with his cowherd friends. He also endures episodes of carefree bravery protecting the town from demons. More importantly, however, he steals the hearts of the cowherd girls (Gopis). Through his magical ways, he multiplies himself to give each the attention needed to allow her to be so much in love with Krishna that she feels at one with him and only desires to serve him. This love, represented by the grief they feel when Krishna is called away on a heroic mission and their intense longing for him, is presented as models of the way of extreme devotion (bhakti) to the Supreme Lord.[47]

Sectarian scriptures
Part of a series on
Vaishnavism
Hinduism portal

Varkari movement

In the Varkari movement the following scriptures are considered sacred in addition to general body of the common writing:

  • Dyaneshawri
  • Tukaram-Gatha
  • Sopandevi
  • Namdev-Gatha
  • Eknathi-Bhagwat

Chaitanya movement
  • Sad Sandarbhas
  • Brahma Samhita

Practics

Holy places
Main articles: Vrindavana and Goloka

Vrindavana is often considered to be a holy place by majority of traditions of Krishnaism. It's a center of Krishna worship and the area includes places like Govardhana and Gokula associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of bhaktas or devotees of Krishna visit these places of pilgrimage every year and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes from Krishna's life on Earth.[48]

On the other hand, Goloka is considered the eternal abode of Krishna, Svayam bhagavan according to some Vaishnava schools, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism and the Swaminarayan Sampraday. The scriptural basis for this is taken in Brahma Samhita and Bhagavata Purana.[49]

Traditions

Demography

Krishnaism has a limited following outside of India, especially associated with 1960s counter-culture, including a number of celebrity followers, such as George Harrison, due to its promulgation throughout the world by the founder-acharya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.[50][51][52]

Krishnaism and Christianity

Debaters have often alleged a number of parallels between Krishnaism and Christianity, originating with Kersey Graves' The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors claiming 346 parallels between Krishna and Jesus,[53] theorizing that Christianity emerged as a result of an import of pagan concepts upon Judaism. Some 19th- to early 20th-century scholars writing on Jesus Christ in comparative mythology (John M. Robertson, Christianity and Mythology, 1910) even sought to derive both traditions from a common predecessor religion.[54]

Notes
  1. Friedhelm Hardy in his "Viraha-bhakti" analyses the history of Krishnaism, specifically all pre-11th-century sources starting with the stories of Krishna and the gopi, and Mayon mysticism of the Vaishnava Tamil saints, Sangam Tamil literature and Alvars' Krishna-centered devotion in the rasa of the emotional union and the dating and history of the Bhagavata Purana.[23][24]

References
  1. Les sectes et mouvements religieux. Gregorian Biblical BookShop. 1992. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-88-7652-650-3.
  2. SPREADING THE GOSPEL AT HARVARD The New York Times May 22, 1988 Retrieved on 5-21-2008
  3. KLOSTERMAIER, Klaus K. (2005). A Survey of Hinduism. State University of New York Press; 3 edition. pp. 206. ISBN 0-7914-7081-4. Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vāsudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna - a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion.
  4. BASHAM, A. L. "Review:Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes. by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 3 (May, 1968), pp. 667-670". JSTOR 2051211. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. Hastings 2003, p. 540
  6. "Non-Vedic in origin and development, Kṛṣṇaism now sought affiliation with Vedism so that it could become acceptable to the still not inconsiderable orthodox elements among the people. That is how Viṣṇu of the Ṛgveda came to be assimilated—more or less superficially—into Kṛṣṇaism." in Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (1987). The Encyclopedia of religion. Macmillan. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-02-909880-6.
  7. James Mulhern (1959) A History of Education: A Social Interpretation p. 93
  8. Franklin Edgerton (1925) The Bhagavad Gita: Or, Song of the Blessed One, India's Favorite Bible pp. 87-91
  9. Charlotte Vaudeville has said, it is the 'real Bible of Krsnaism'. Quoted in: Matchett, 2000
  10. Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 436–438. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  11. Osmund Bopearachchi, Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence, 2016.
  12. Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. BRILL. p. 215. ISBN 978-90-04-10758-8.
  13. Doris Srinivasan (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. BRILL Academic. pp. 211–220, 236. ISBN 90-04-10758-4.
  14. Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
  15. Christopher Austin (2018). Diana Dimitrova and Tatiana Oranskaia (ed.). Divinizing in South Asian Traditions. Taylor & Francis. pp. 30–35. ISBN 978-1-351-12360-0.
  16. Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
  17. Malpan, Varghese (1992). A Comparative Study of the Bhagavad-gītā and the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius of Loyola on the Process of Spiritual Liberation. Gregorian Biblical BookShop. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-88-7652-648-0.
  18. "The affix vun comes in the sense of "this is his object of veneration" after the words 'Vâsudeva' and 'Arjuna'", giving Vâsudevaka and Arjunaka. Source: Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 Panini 4-3-98
  19. "Vaishnava". philtar.ucsm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
  20. Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar (1976). Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar as an Indologist: A Symposium. India: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. pp. 38–40.
  21. KLOSTERMAIER, Klaus K. (2005). A Survey of Hinduism. State University of New York Press; 3 edition. pp. 206. ISBN 0-7914-7081-4. Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the sect of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna - a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion.
  22. G. Widengren (1997). Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions - Religions of the Present. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 270. ISBN 90-04-02598-7.
  23. Hardy, Friedhelm (2001). Viraha-Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India (Oxford University South Asian Studies Series). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-564916-8.
  24. "Book review - FRIEDHELM HARDY, Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krishna Devotion in South India. Oxford University Press, Nagaswamy 23 (4): 443 -- Indian Economic & Social History Review". ier.sagepub.com. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
  25. MONIUS, Anne E.: Dance Before Doom. Krishna In The Non-Hindu Literature of Early Medieval South India. In: Beck, Guy L., ed. Alternative Krishnas. Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity. Albany: State University of New York Press 2005; Ch. 8. pp. 139-149.
  26. Norman Cutler (1987) Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion, p. 13
  27. "Devotion to Mal (Mayon)". philtar.ucsm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
  28. Ganguli translation of Mahabharata, Ch.148
  29. Flood,(1996) p. 117
  30. Wilson, Bill; McDowell, Josh (1993). The best of Josh McDowell: a ready defense. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 352–353. ISBN 0-8407-4419-6.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. "It becomes clear that the personality of Bhagvan Krishna subordinates to itself the titles and identities of Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc. The pervasive theme, then, of the Bhagavata Puran is the identification of Bhagavan with Krishna."(Sheridan 1986, p. 53)
  32. Scheweig, (2004) pp. 13-17
  33. Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
  34. "Chaitanya Charitamrita Madhya 20.165". Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
  35. Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2008. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities". History of Religions. 26 (3): 333–335. doi:10.1086/463085. JSTOR 1062381.
  37. Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-40548-5.
  38. KLOSTERMAIER, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism. State University of New York Press; 3 edition. pp. 204. ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7. ..Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, certainly the most popular religious books in the whole of India. Not only was Krsnaism influenced by the identification of Krsna with Vishnu, but also Vaishnavism as a whole was partly transformed and reinvented in the light of the popular and powerful Krishna religion. Bhagavatism may have brought an element of cosmic religion into Krishna worship; Krishna has certainly brought a strongly human element into Bhagavatism. ... The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from the time immemorial. Many millions of Krishna bhaktas visit these places ever year and participate in the numerous festivals that reenact scenes from Krshnas life on Earth
  39. Radhakrishan(1970), ninth edition, Blackie and son India Ltd., p.211, Verse 6.47
  40. A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 8.15". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved 14 January 2008.
  41. Matchett 2000, p. 153Bhag. Purana 1.3.28 :ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam :indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge
  42. 1.3.28 Swami Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 3 Verse 28". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
  43. "Sri Krishna". www.stephen-knapp.com. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
  44. Dhanurdhara Swami (2000). Waves of Devotion. Bhagavat Books. ISBN 0-9703581-0-5.
  45. "Waves of Devotion". www.wavesofdevotion.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2008. In Hari-namamr†a-vyakarana, Jiva Gosvami defines paribhasa-sutra as aniyame niyama-karini paribhasa: "A paribhasa-sutra implies a rule or theme where it is not explicitly stated." In other words, it gives the context in which to understand a series of apparently unrelated statements in a book.
  46. Matchett 2000, p. 141
  47. Matchett 2000, 10th canto transl.
  48. KLOSTERMAIER, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism. State University of New York Press; 3 edition. pp. 204. ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7. ..Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, certainly the most popular religious books in the whole of India. Not only was Krsnaism influenced by the identification of Krsna with Vishnu, but also Vaishnavism as a whole was partly transformed and reinvented in the light of the popular and powerful Krishna religion. Bhagavatism may have brought an element of cosmic religion into Krishna worship; Krishna has certainly brought a strongly human element into Bhagavatism. ... The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of Krishna bhaktas visit these places ever year and participate in the numerous festivals that reenact scenes from Krshna's life on Earth
  49. SCHWEIG, G.M. (2005). Dance of divine love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred love story. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey; Oxford. p. 10. ISBN 0-691-11446-3.
  50. RIDENOUR, Fritz (2001). So What's the Difference?. Gospel Light Publications. pp. 180–181. ISBN 0-8307-1898-2.
  51. Giuliano, Geoffrey (1997). Dark horse: the life and art of George Harrison. New York: Da Capo Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-306-80747-5.
  52. Graham M. Schweig (2005). Dance of Divine Love: The Rڄasa Lڄilڄa of Krishna from the Bhڄagavata Purڄa. na, India's classic sacred love story. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. pp. Front Matter. ISBN 0-691-11446-3.
  53. The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors by Kersey Graves
  54. Jackson, John (1985). Christianity Before Christ. American Atheist Press. pp. 166. ISBN 0-910309-20-5. John M. Robertson wrote a learned treatise entitled "Christ and Krishna", and in that work he argued that there was no direct contact between Krishnaism and Christianity; but that both sects were derived from an earlier common source.

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