Japanese opium policy in Taiwan (1895–1945)

Opium Poppy

Opium is a highly addictive type of depressant drug which dates back to 3400BC.[1] The opium poppy pods contain a milky substance called latex, which is made up of a number of chemicals such as morphine and codeine.[1] The Latex from the pods is boiled and dried to become opium.[4] Opium has been used throughout history recreationally and as medicine, with historians predicting that opium was likely introduced throughout East Asia in the sixth century A.D. along the Silk Road trade route.[4] The First and Second Opium Wars of the19th century between the British Empire and Qing Dynasty saw the continued spread of opium throughout East Asia.[3] While opium presented the opportunity for a lucrative trading market to many countries, the devastating impact of the addictive substance caused havoc across East Asia as well as throughout the US and Europe.[3]

In 1894 the Sino-Japanese War began over Japans invasion of Korea.[5] The Qing Dynasty was underprepared for the war and was overwhelmed by the power and force of the Japanese fleet.[4] China was left humiliated by their defeat and in 1895 signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki[6] which conceded Taiwan to Japanese rule in perpetuity.[3] Taiwan was officially named Formosa under Japanese rule.[3] The Taiwanese rebelled against the promise of Japanese rule and on the 25th of May 1985 established the ‘Republic of Formosa’.[4] On May 29th over twelve thousand Japanese troops arrived in Taiwan and begun disbanding the Taiwanese movement for independence.[4] The ‘Republic of Formosa was officially defeated in October of 1895 and Japanese occupation of Taiwan commenced. The Japanese government viewed Taiwan as a resource for Japans industries and saw an opportunity for a colonial market of Japanese goods and services which could improve the Japanese economy.[4] The Japanese governments opium policies throughout 1895 to 1945 were highly controversial given Taiwans long history with opium smoking. As well as the innate political and economic motivations of the Japanese government in interfering with the practice.[4] Taiwans long history with opium is strongly associated with Taiwans close relationship with China throughout history.[5] In 1544, Taiwan was used as a Dutch service station for ships sailing to China and Japan.[5] It was during this period that Opium was heavily trafficked by the Dutch from the East Indies through to Taiwan and then onto China.[3] The use of Taiwan as a trading port continued throughout the Chinese occupation of Taiwan prior to the annexation. Taiwan was used as a Chinese trading centre for the French, Dutch and Portuguese where opium was continually traded across Taiwan.[3] As a result opium because widespread throughout Taiwanese society and the profitability of the trade was identified.[3]

Formosa was a Japanese colony for over 50 years, from 1895 to the end of WWII in 1945.[7] During the first three years of Japans colonial rule, the Japanese military governed the island. However in 1898 Tokyo began appointing Japanese Governors to oversee Taiwan.[7] As Taiwan was Japans first colony, many resources were used to ensure the success of the colony Formosa.[4] Japan had widespread success in establishing order throughout the colony by working to eradicate diseases as well as improve the colonies infrastructure and overall economy.[7] Japanese rule modernised Taiwan following the ‘Meiji’ restoration processes.[8] Their initial policies focused on growing the agricultural industry by working to improve production outputs and farming techniques.[4] The Japanese also built highways and improved the existing infrastructure of railway tracks which aimed to increase access to isolated areas the island and stimulate the economy.[4] Taiwan Initially had 50 km of railway track when the Japanese first took control of the colony and worked to develop upwards of 500km of railway tracks.[4] The Japanese also constructed schools, hospitals and other key infrastructure such as roads, productive farms and trade ports.[4] The Japanese government intended to propel Taiwan into a modern economy, and as a result became of the most advanced countries in East Asia.[4]

Formosa experienced a shift in cultural identity as a result of Japanese rule.[9] Although Formosa was not technically assimilated with Japanese culture, the local Taiwanese populations were forced to speak Japanese instead of their native language resulting in the loss of local culture.[4] The Japanese ruled the Taiwanese people strictly, dictating policies which represented Japanese interests.[4] A key aspect of the policies which were created to benefit Japanese interests at the time, involved control of the opium trade and strict regulation of its presence throughout Taiwanese and Japanese society.[4] Japans desire to “civilise” Formosa and the “savages” which occupied the land extended past infrastructure and education, and focussed largely on opium usage.[10] The practise of smoking opium was seen as primitive and dangerous by the Japanese hick as a threat to their ideology and their perception in the global world.[3]

In 1895 the short lived ‘Republic of Formosa’ resistance leaders created fake ‘Japanese issued propaganda’ stating that opium would be banned in the hope it would drive supporters to their cause.[7] In response, the Japanese government made it temporality legal to continue smoking opium for the local Taiwanese residents, while stating it was punishable by death to supply opium to any Japanese individual.[2] After the Republic of Formosa was defeated, the Japanese government took great issue with the prevalence of opium through Taiwan, fearing it would spread to Japan if not monitored correctly.[2]

On January 21st 1897 the Japanese government issued the Taiwan Opium Edict which established a new opium policy for Taiwan.[2] The Edict outlined the Japanese governments monopoly over the trade of opium and the restricted sale of the drug to “proven addicts” with the necessary licences.[2] The process of ‘Licensed opium usage’ took three years to complete and resulted in just under 200,000 licences .[2] Japans opium policy was conducted under the administration and leadership of the East Asia Development Board (Kōain) in operation from December 1938 to November 1942.[11] The policy meant Taiwanese nationals who already addicted to opium could continue to smoke under government regulation. However by the 1920s there were as many unregistered opium users as registered opium users. The imbalance between the number of registered and unregistered opium smokers demonstrated that the policy was ineffective at keeping nonusers from taking up smoking.[7] Opium dens were common place throughout Southeast Asia. They were establishments where opium was sold and smoked and were frequented by locals and foreigns who were looking to access opium.[3]

Two opium smokers in a Shanghai, China, den in the early 20th century - Collectors Weekly

The ‘Opium Edict’ is viewed by some historians as the initial demonstration by the Japanese government of their intentions to profit from the opium trade.[12] The government was in the process of making the opium trade a monopoly for their individual gain, whilst simultaneously developing policies which permitted users to continue smoking and prohibited people from starting to smoke.[12] In 1896, 1 year after the Japanese began establishing a monopoly, opium revenue made up 60% of Taiwans total yearly revenue, which continued to grow throughout the 1900s.[3] The monopoly led to an increase in revenue achieved by inflated prices of opium and an overall decrease of smokers.[3] The outcome of the Opium Edict suggests that the Opium policy had a twofold function, in that, revenue was needed to fund Japans occupation of Formosa and that controlling opium usage in Taiwan was a direct method of controlling the population.[3]Another function of the opium policy was the economic prosperity achieved by the government as a result of the monopoly which could be used to further Japans colonial interests.[12]

The rise of Japan's militarism in the late 1930s saw Japan rely more heavily on the resources of their colonies.[8] As World War II progressed, opium licensing became a source of much-needed revenue for Japans war efforts. Japan used Taiwans resources and man power to support them in their war effort as well as the revenue of the opium trade. The opium trade was so profitable for the Japanese government and supported the needs of the military to such an extent that in 1942 the Japanese government expanded their revenue operation to included 277 kg of cocaine, which was processed by the Japanese colonial government in Taiwan.[9]