Brexit

Brexit (/ˈbrɛksɪt, ˈbrɛɡzɪt/;[1] a portmanteau of "British" and "exit") is the withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU). Following a UK-wide referendum in June 2016, in which 52% voted to leave and 48% voted to remain in the EU, the British government formally announced the country's withdrawal in March 2017, beginning the Brexit process. The withdrawal was delayed by deadlock in the British parliament. Following general elections in 2017 and 2019, Parliament ratified the withdrawal agreement, and the UK left the EU at 11 p.m. GMT on 31 January 2020. This began a transition period that is set to end on 31 December 2020, during which the UK and EU are negotiating their future relationship.[2] The UK remains subject to EU law and remains part of the EU customs union and single market during the transition, but is no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.[3][4]

Part of a series of articles on
Brexit

Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union


Glossary of terms
EU portal · UK portal
Part of a series of articles on
British membership
of the European Union
EU portal · UK portal

Withdrawal was advocated by hard Eurosceptics and opposed by pro-Europeanists and soft Eurosceptics, with both sides of the argument spanning the political spectrum. The UK joined the European Communities (EC) – principally the European Economic Community (EEC) – in 1973, and its continued membership was endorsed in a 1975 referendum. In the 1970s and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the Labour Party's 1983 election manifesto. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty founded the EU, but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party led a rebellion over ratification of the treaty and, with the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and the cross-party People's Pledge campaign, pressured the Conservative prime minister David Cameron to hold a referendum on continued EU membership, which was held in June 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain, resigned after the result and was succeeded by Theresa May.

On 29 March 2017, the UK government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union with permission from Parliament. May called a snap general election in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government supported by the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). UK–EU withdrawal negotiations began later that month. The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the November 2018 withdrawal agreement, but the British parliament voted against ratifying it three times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many Conservatives opposed the agreement's financial settlement, as well as the "Irish backstop" designed to prevent border controls between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through a proposed second referendum.

On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June, and then later October.[5] Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as Prime Minister in July and was succeeded by Boris Johnson. He sought to replace parts of the agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for Northern Ireland.[6][7] Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the "Benn Act") to ask for a third Brexit delay. An early general election was then held on 12 December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.[8] The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on 23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January.[9][10][11]

Many effects of Brexit depend on how closely the UK will be tied to the EU, or whether the transition period ends without terms being agreed (a "no-deal Brexit").[3] The broad consensus among economists is that Brexit will likely harm the UK's economy and reduce its real per capita income in the long term, and that the referendum itself damaged the economy.[lower-alpha 1] Brexit is likely to reduce immigration from European Economic Area (EEA) countries to the UK, and poses challenges for UK higher education, academic research and security. Following Brexit, EU law and the EU Court of Justice no longer have supremacy over UK laws or its Supreme Court, except to a temporary extent. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 retains relevant EU law as domestic law, which the UK could then amend or repeal.

Timeline

UK membership of EU ended on 31 January 2020, beginning a period of transitional arrangements set to end on 31 December 2020.

Terminology and etymology

In the wake of the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related jargon entered popular use.[25][26]

Background: the United Kingdom and Europe

The Inner Six (blue) and Outer Seven (green) of European integration in 1961

The "Inner Six" European countries signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The 1955 Messina Conference deemed that the ECSC was a success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957 Treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In 1967, these became known as the European Communities (EC). The UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the President of France, Charles de Gaulle.[27]

Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for EC membership, and the Conservative prime minister Edward Heath signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972.[28] Parliament passed the European Communities Act later that year[29] and the UK joined Denmark and Ireland in becoming a member on 1 January 1973.[30]

The opposition Labour Party won the February 1974 general election without a majority and then contested the subsequent October 1974 general election with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a referendum on whether to remain in the EC on the new terms.[31] Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its first ever national referendum, asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,[32] all major political parties and the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of the electorate and all but two[33] UK counties and regions voted to stay in;[34] support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016 referendum.[35]

Comparison of results of 1975 and 2016 referendums

The Labour Party campaigned in the 1983 general election on a commitment to withdraw from the EC without a referendum.[36] After their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy.[36] In 1985, the second Margaret Thatcher government ratified the Single European Act—the first major revision to the Treaty of Rome—without a referendum.

In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations, the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound sterling pegged to the deutschmark. Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister the following month, amid Conservative Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK and Italy were forced to withdraw from the ERM in September 1992, after the pound sterling and the lira came under pressure from currency speculation ("Black Wednesday").[37]

Under the Maastricht Treaty, the EC became the EU on 1 November 1993,[38] reflecting the evolution of the organisation from an economic union into a political one.[39] Denmark, France, and Ireland held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with British constitutional convention, specifically that of parliamentary sovereignty, ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification had no way to express it. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be legitimate—which requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the [EC]."[40][41] This perceived democratic deficit directly led to the formation of the Referendum Party and the UK Independence Party.

Rising Euroscepticism

Conservative prime ministers Thatcher (left) and Cameron (right) used Eurosceptic rhetoric while being in favour of the UK's membership and the development of the European Single Market. Euroscepticism—and in particular the impact of the UK Independence Party (former leader Farage pictured centre) on the Conservatives' election results—contributed to Cameron's 2015 attempt to renegotiate the UK's EU membership and ultimately the holding of the 2016 referendum.

Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the Bruges speech of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced Daniel Hannan, who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the Financial Times later wrote.[42] In 1994, Sir James Goldsmith formed the Referendum Party to contest the 1997 general election on a platform of providing a referendum on the nature of the UK's relationship with the rest of the EU.[43][44] The party fielded candidates in 547 constituencies at that election, and won 810,860 votes—2.6% of the total votes cast[45]—but failed to win a parliamentary seat because the vote was spread across the country. The Referendum Party disbanded after Goldsmith's death in 1997.

The UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic political party, was formed in 1993. It achieved third place in the UK during the 2004 European elections, second place in the 2009 European elections and first place in the 2014 European elections, with 27.5% of the total vote. This was the first time since the 1910 general election that any party other than Labour or the Conservatives had taken the largest share of the vote in a nationwide election.[46] UKIP's electoral success in the 2014 European election is documented as the strongest correlate of the support for the Leave campaign in the 2016 referendum.[47]

UKIP won two by-elections (triggered by defecting Conservative MPs) in 2014; in the 2015 general election, the party took 12.6% of the total vote and held one of the two seats won in 2014.[48]

Opinion polls 1977–2015

Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.[49] In the EC membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left and right of British politics.[50][51][52]

According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor John Curtice of Strathclyde University, surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (defined as a wish to sever or reduce the powers of the EU) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the period of July–November 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member and 30% backed withdrawal.[53]

Referendum of 2016

Negotiations for membership reform

In 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership,[54] but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.[55] According to the BBC, "The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's [renegotiated] position within the [EU] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and strategic patience'."[56] On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the rise of UKIP, Cameron announced in his Bloomberg speech that a Conservative government would hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated package, if elected in the 7 May 2015 general election.[57] This was included in the Conservative Party manifesto for the election.[58][59]

The Conservative Party won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the European Union Referendum Act 2015 was introduced into Parliament to enable the referendum. Cameron favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from "ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.[60]

In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards for non-eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-British EU citizens.[61]

The outcome of the renegotiations was announced in February 2016. Some limits to in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state such as the UK would have to get permission from the European Commission and then from the European Council, which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.[62]

In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.[63] He spoke of an intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."[64]

After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,[65] the government agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"

Referendum result

The result was announced on the morning of 24 June: 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).[66][67] After the result was declared, Cameron announced that he would resign by October.[68] He stood down on 13 July 2016, with Theresa May becoming Prime Minister after a leadership contest. A petition calling for a second referendum attracted more than four million signatures,[69][70] but was rejected by the government on 9 July.[71]

2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
Choice Votes %
Leave the European Union 17,410,742 51.89
Remain a member of the European Union 16,141,241 48.11
Valid votes 33,551,983 99.92
Invalid or blank votes 25,359 0.08
Total votes 33,577,342 100.00
Registered voters and turnout 46,500,001 72.21
Source: Electoral Commission[72]
National referendum results (without spoiled ballots)
Leave:
17,410,742 (51.9%)
Remain:
16,141,241 (48.1%)
Results by Country of the United Kingdom/region of England (left) and by council district (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)
  Leave
  Remain

A 2017 study published in Economic Policy showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing employment, and in which the population had fewer qualifications. It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.[73] Those in lower social grades (especially the 'working class') were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the 'upper middle class') more likely to vote Remain.[74][75][76] Studies found that the Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,[77] high rates of suicides and drug-related deaths,[78] and austerity reforms introduced in 2010.[79]

Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely to vote Remain.[80] According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the London School of Economics, "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' [...] A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave. There was no gender split in the vote [...] Leaving the European Union received support from across the political spectrum [...] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life in Britain is getting worse".[13]

Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world". Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders". The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices".[81]

Withdrawal process

Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union. It was originally drafted by Lord Kerr of Kinlochard,[82] and introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon at the insistence of the United Kingdom. The article states that any member state can withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the European Council of its intention to do so.[83] The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with [the leaving] State, setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with the [European] Union".[84] If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states, including the withdrawing state.[84] On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by qualified majority in the European Council, and by the European Parliament.[84]

Invocation of Article 50

Letter from Theresa May invoking Article 50

The 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,[84] but prior to the referendum, the UK government said it would respect the result.[85] When Cameron resigned following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke Article 50.[68][86] The new prime minister, Theresa May, said she would wait until 2017 to invoke the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.[87] In October 2016, she said UK would trigger Article 50 in March 2017,[88] and in December she gained the support of MP's for her timetable.[89]

In January 2017, the UK Supreme Court ruled in the Miller case that government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.[90] The government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16 March as the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017.[91] On 29 March, Theresa May triggered Article 50 when Tim Barrow, the UK's ambassador to the EU, delivered the invocation letter to European Council President Donald Tusk. This made 29 March 2019 the expected date that UK would leave EU.[92][93]

In December 2018, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".[94] If UK revoked their notification, they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was launched by Scottish politicians, and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish Court of Session.[95]

UK–EU negotiations in 2017 and 2018

Prior to the negotiations, May said that the UK government would not seek permanent single market membership, would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end free movement of people and maintain the Common Travel Area with Ireland.[96] The EU had adopted its negotiating directives in May,[97] and appointed Michael Barnier as Chief Negotiator.[98] The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then negotiations on a future relationship could begin.[99] In the first phase, the member states would demand that the UK pay a "divorce bill", initially estimated as amounting to £52 billion.[100] EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October 2018.[101]

In April 2017, Theresa May called a snap general election, held on 8 June, in an attempt to "strengthen [her] hand" in the negotiations;[102] but the election resulted in a hung parliament, the Conservatives losing their majority. May remained as prime minister, as on 26 June she formed a minority government with a confidence and supply agreement with the Democratic Unionist Party.[103]

Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.[104] Negotiating groups were established for three topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.[105][106][107] In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in EU and EU citizens in UK, and estimated the financial settlement to be £35–39 billion.[108] May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".[109] Following this partial agreement, EU leaders agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship, a transition period and a possible trade deal.[110]

In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.[111] In June 2018, Irish Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said that there had been little progress on the Irish border questionon which the EU proposed a backstop, to come into effect if no overall trade deal had been reached by the end of the transition periodand that it was unlikely that there would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.[112] In July 2018, the UK government published the Chequers plan, its aims for the future relationship to be determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep UK access to the single market for goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent trade policy.[113] The plan caused cabinet resignations, including Brexit Secretary David Davis[114] and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson.[115]

Draft withdrawal agreement

On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement,[116] and May secured her cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,[117] though Brexit Secretary Dominic Raab resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.[118] It was expected that ratification in the UK parliament would be difficult.[119][120][121] On 25 November, all 27 leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.[119][120]

Attempted ratification

On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her Brexit deal. The announcement came minutes after the Prime Minister's Office confirmed the vote would be going ahead.[122] Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave May more time to negotiate with Conservative backbenchers and the EU, even though they had ruled out further discussions.[123] The decision was met with calls from many Welsh Labour MPs for a motion of no confidence in the Government.[124] The Leader of the Opposition, Jeremy Corbyn, described the government as being in "disarray".

The European Research Group (ERG), a staunchly anti-EU grouping in Conservative Party, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the Irish backstop.[125][126] ERG members also objected to the proposed £39 billion financial settlement with the EU and stated that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.[127][128]

On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the largest majority against a United Kingdom government ever.[129][130] Soon after, a motion of no confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition,[131] which was rejected by 325 votes to 306.[132]

On 24 February, Prime Minister May announced that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from Brexit.[133] The deal was voted against 391 to 242, a loss of 149 votes down from 230 from when the deal was proposed in January.[134]

On 18 March 2019, the Speaker informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote could be held only on a motion that was significantly different from the previous one, citing parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.[135]

The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings on 29 March.[136] The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was lost by 344 votes to 286, a loss of 58 votes down from 149 from when the deal was proposed on 12 March.[137]

March and April extensions

On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.[138] On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed between the UK government and the European Council.[139] The first alternative offered was that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019, with, or without, a deal—or alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to participate in the 2019 European Parliament elections given. The second alternative offered was that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.[140] After the government deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,[141][142] on 27 March 2019 both the Lords (without a vote)[143] and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is not.[144] The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40 p.m. the next day.[139]

Following the failure of the UK Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29 March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019; Theresa May had again requested an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May, or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.[145][146]

Revised withdrawal agreement

In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is, renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.[147]

After Boris Johnson became prime minister on 24 July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following "tunnel talks" between UK and EU,[148] a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on negotiators level, and endorsed by the UK government and the EU Commission.[149] The revised deal contained a new Northern Ireland Protocol, as well as technical modifications to related articles.[6] In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.[150] The revised deal and the political declaration was endorsed by the European Council later that day.[151] To come into effect, it needs to be ratified by the European Parliament and the UK parliament.[152]

October 2019 extension

The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019, which received Royal Assent on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.[153] In order for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the Prime Minister, it would be necessary for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.[154] On 28 October 2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January 2020.[155] 'Exit day' in UK law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on 30 October 2019.[156]

Ratification and departure

In October, the UK parliament passed the Early Parliamentary General Election Act that bypassed the Fixed-term Parliament Act 2011 and called a general election for 12 December.[157] In the election, Boris Johnson's campaign was focused on "get Brexit done", and the Conservative Party won an 80-seat majority in parliament.[158] Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its second reading in the House of Commons in a 358–234 vote on 20 December,[159] and became law on 23 January as the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020.[160]

The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the constitutional committee in the European Parliament on 23 January, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approved it in a later vote.[161][162][163] On the following day, Ursula von der Leyen and Charles Michel signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where Boris Johnson signed it.[9] The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by the votes 621 to 49.[164][10] Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne.[165] The Council of the European Union concluded EU ratification the following day.[166]

On 31 January at 11 p.m. GMT, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union ended 47 years after it joined.[11]

Political developments within UK

Domestic legislation after Article 50 notification

European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the European Communities Act 1972 and restate in UK law all enactments previously in force under EU law. Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, it was introduced to the House of Commons on 13 July 2017.[167]

On 12 September 2017, the bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes to 290 votes in the House of Commons.[168] The bill was further amended on a series of votes in both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29 June to renew its call on Member States and Union institutions to step up their work on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.[169]

The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on how to proceed if the negotiations have not reached agreement in principle on both the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU; while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the final terms of withdrawal when the current Brexit negotiations are completed. In any event, the act does not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ends at the latest on 29 March 2019 if the UK has not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation of the negotiating period.[170]

The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allows for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by order made under section 25, the provisions that fix "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act 1972, but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties are to cease to apply to the UK.[171]

Exit day

Exit day was 31 January 2020 at 11.00 p.m. GMT[156] The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (as amended by a UK Statutory Instrument on 11 April 2019), in section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00 p.m. on 31 October 2019.[139] Originally, 'exit day' was defined as 11:00 p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT (UTC+0).[170][172][173][174][175]

Additional government bills

A report published in March 2017 by the Institute for Government commented that, in addition to the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation will be needed to cover the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.[176] The report also commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems, and as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills may be required, which would involve strict prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.[177]

In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects, including:

Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018

The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for connected purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards regulations") make provision for the purpose of — (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material, facilities or equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.[178]

2017 British general election

A general election was held on 8 June 2017, announced at short notice by the new Prime Minister May. The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU immigrants.[179][180][181][182] The Liberal Democrat Party and the Green Party manifestos proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a second referendum.[183][184][185] The Scottish National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit negotiations and then holding a referendum on Scottish independence.[186][187] Compared to the 2015 general election, the Conservatives gained votes (but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons). Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the second-largest party. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Sinn Féin also made gains in votes and seats. Parties losing votes included the SNP, Liberal Democrats, Greens, and especially UKIP.[188]

On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a confidence and supply agreement whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of £1 billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and Winter Fuel Payments would be maintained.[189]

Public opinion

Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late 2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to a plurality, which held until the 2017 general election. Since then, opinion polls tended to show a plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain : 47% Leave, as of October 2019).[190] This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, as of October 2019, were too young to vote at the time).[191][192] Other reasons suggested include slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, as of October 2019)[193] changing how they would vote (particularly in Labour areas) and the deaths of older voters,[190] most of whom voted to leave the EU. One estimate of demographic changes (ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place in October 2019, there would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and 700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.[191]

In March 2019, a petition submitted to the UK Parliament petitions website, calling on the government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than 6.1 million signatures.[194][195]

Scotland

After the Brexit referendum, the Scottish Government—led by the Scottish National Party (SNP)—announced that officials were planning another independence referendum because Scotland voted to remain in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave.[196] It had suggested this before the Brexit referendum.[197] The First Minister of Scotland, Nicola Sturgeon, requested a referendum be held before the UK's withdrawal, but the UK Prime Minister rejected this timing.[198] The Scottish Parliament voted in favour of holding another independence referendum, with Sturgeon planning it for 2021.[199][200] At the last referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In the event that Northern Ireland remains associated with the EU – for example, by remaining in the Customs Union – it is expected that Scotland will also insist on special treatment.[201]

On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the Scottish Continuity Bill.[202] This was passed by stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allows for all devolved policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduces the executive power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.[203] The bill was referred to the UK Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, which received royal assent between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under Schedule 4 of the Scotland Act 1998 as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.[204] The bill has therefore not received royal assent.[205]

No-deal planning

On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission announced its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."[206]

In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the Department for International Trade (DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.[207] By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiators[208] and was overseen by then Secretary of State for International Trade Liam Fox. In March 2019, the UK government announced that it would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.[209] The Confederation of British Industry said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",[210][211][212] and the National Farmer's Union was also highly critical.[213] Additionally, the plan appeared to breach standard WTO rules.[214][210][215][216][217][218]

Litigation

There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (simply known as the "Miller case") and the 2017 Notification Act:

  • In R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, a Divisional Court of Gross LJ and Green MR determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is confirmed by the House of Commons Library commentary on the case.[219] The case was appealed to the Court of Appeal[220] and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by a PhD candidate,[221] aspects of the case's analysis were supported by the UK Supreme Court in Miller 2 at paragraph 57, which confirmed that:

Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.

  • This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of R. (Wilson) v. Prime Minister[222] which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before Ouseley MJ[223] and when judgement was given it was held that: courts’ job was not to rule on irregularities in the ‘leave’ campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was brought both too early and too late.[219] Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before Hickinbottom LJ and Haddon-Cave LJ) before also went against the applicant.[224]
  • Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50, Wightman and others v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union was referred to Court of Justice of the European Union;[225] the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the UK Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.[226] On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.[227]

Impact

Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a withdrawal agreement, or before an agreement was ratified ("no-deal" Brexit).[228] The Financial Times said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer have been a party to upon leaving the EU.[229]

Border crossing at Killeen (near Newry), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph).

Economists expect that Brexit will have damaging immediate and longer term effects on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there is a broad consensus among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit will likely reduce the UK's real per capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself damaged the economy.[lower-alpha 2][230][231] Studies found that Brexit-induced uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.[232][233][234][235][236][237] A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased offshoring to the EU after the Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.[238][239] The UK government's own Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed that UK economic growth would be stunted by 2–8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on the leave scenario.[240][241] Economists warned that London's future as an international financial centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.[242][243] Pro-Brexit activists and politicians have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "CANZUK" countries—those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom[244][245]—but economists have noted that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU membership.[246][247][248] Studies indicate that Brexit will exacerbate regional economic inequality in the UK, as already struggling regions will be hardest hit by Brexit.[249]

The potential impact on the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland has been a contentious issue. Since 2005, the border has been essentially invisible.[250] After Brexit, it will be the only UK–EU land border.[251] All involved parties agree a hard border should be avoided,[252] as it might compromise the Good Friday Agreement that ended the Northern Ireland conflict.[253][254][255] To forestall this, the EU proposed a "backstop agreement" (the Northern Ireland Protocol) that would have kept the UK in the Customs Union and kept Northern Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market also, until a lasting solution was found.[256] The backstop was part of the withdrawal agreement, but was replaced in the revised agreement.[152]

Brexit caused the European Union to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous country,[257] and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.[258] Brexit will result in an additional financial burden for the remaining net contributors, unless the budget is reduced accordingly. The UK will no longer be a shareholder in the European Investment Bank, where it has 16% of the shares.[259] Analyses indicate that the departure of the relatively economically liberal UK will reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in the Council of the EU.[260][261] In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the European Medicines Agency and European Banking Authority moved their headquarters from London to Amsterdam and Paris, respectively.[262][263][264]

After Brexit, the UK will leave the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),[265] which provides government financial support to farmers in the EU.[266] The UK receives much less than it contributes.[266] Brexit allows the UK to develop its own agriculture policy.[267] The current UK government has committed to maintaining the same payments to farmers until the end of the current parliament, even without a withdrawal agreement.[265] The Agriculture Bill is intended to replace the CAP with a new system.[267] The UK will also leave the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)[268] that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the UK coast[269] and lets the EU set catch quotas.[270] The combined EU fishing fleets land about six million tonnes of fish per year,[271] about half of which are from UK waters.[272] By leaving the CFP, the UK could develop its own fisheries policy.[270] The UK will also leave the London Fisheries Convention that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.[273]

Cars crossing into Gibraltar clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and Schengen Zone.

Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory bordering Spain, will be affected by Brexit. Spain asserts a territorial claim on Gibraltar. After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for joint Spanish–British control.[274] In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,[275] and the British government agreed that UK–EU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.[276]

Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK is likely to lose research funding from EU sources; see a reduction in students from the EU; find it harder to hire researchers from the EU; and UK students will find it harder to study abroad in the EU.[277] The UK is currently a member of the European Research Area and likely to wish to remain an associated member following Brexit.[278] The UK government has guaranteed funding for research currently funded by EU.[279]

An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the National Health Service (NHS) workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.[280] The Department of Health and Social Care has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.[281] The number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.[282]

After Brexit, the UK will have the final say over the laws that govern it.[283] Under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, EU laws will no longer have supremacy over UK laws after Brexit.[284] To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into UK law as "retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal.[284] Furthermore, UK courts will no longer be bound by the judgments of the EU Court of Justice after Brexit.

After Brexit, the UK would be able to control immigration from the EU and EEA,[285] as it can end EU freedom of movement. The current UK government intends to replace it with a new system. The government's 2018 white paper proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that prioritizes skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme.[286][287][288] Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the UK.[289][290] After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to do so more than temporarily could need a work permit.[291][292]

By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA), a single market in commercial air travel,[293] but could negotiate a number of different future relationships with the EU.[293] UK airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU with no restrictions, and vice-versa. The UK government seeks continued participation in the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).[293] The UK has its own air service agreements with 111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its EU membership.[294] These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles such as customs checks.[295] New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have been established.[295]

Concerns have been raised that Brexit might create security problems for the UK, particularly in law enforcement and counter-terrorism where the UK could use the EU's databases on individuals crossing the British border.[296]

Cultural references

Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, movies and video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's creative industries voting against leaving the European Union.[297]

See also

Notes

Citations

  1. Hall, Damien (11 August 2017). "'Breksit' or 'bregzit'? The question that divides a nation". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
  2. Asa Bennett (27 January 2020). "How will the Brexit transition period work?". Telegraph. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
  3. Tom Edgington (31 January 2020). "Brexit: What is the transition period?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  4. "Questions and Answers on the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020". European Commission. 24 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  5. "House of Commons votes to seek Article 50 extension". 14 March 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  6. "Revised Withdrawal Agreement" (PDF). European Commission. 17 October 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  7. "New Brexit deal agreed, says Boris Johnson". BBC News. 17 October 2019. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  8. Landler, Mark; Castle, Stephen (12 December 2019). "Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'". The New York Times. New York City: New York Times Company. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019 via MSN.
  9. Boffey, Daniel; Proctor, Kate (24 January 2020). "Boris Johnson signs Brexit withdrawal agreement". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
  10. Sparrow, Andrew (30 January 2020). "Brexit: MEPs approve withdrawal agreement after emotional debate and claims UK will return – live news". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  11. "Brexit: UK leaves the European Union". BBC News. 1 February 2020. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  12. Goodman, Peter S. (20 May 2016). "'Brexit,' a Feel-Good Vote That Could Sink Britain's Economy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2017. finding economists who say they believe that a Brexit will spur the British economy is like looking for a doctor who thinks forswearing vegetables is the key to a long life
  13. Sampson, Thomas (2017). "Brexit: The Economics of International Disintegration" (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 31 (4): 163–184. doi:10.1257/jep.31.4.163. ISSN 0895-3309. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 20 October 2019. The results I summarize in this section focus on long-run effects and have a forecast horizon of 10 or more years after Brexit occurs. Less is known about the likely dynamics of the transition process or the extent to which economic uncertainty and anticipation effects will impact the economies of the United Kingdom or the European Union in advance of Brexit.
  14. Baldwin, Richard (31 July 2016). "Brexit Beckons: Thinking ahead by leading economists". VoxEU.org. Archived from the original on 25 November 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2017. On 23 June 2016, 52% of British voters decided that being the first country ever to leave the EU was a price worth paying for 'taking back control', despite advice from economists clearly showing that Brexit would make the UK 'permanently poorer' (HM Treasury 2016). The extent of agreement among economists on the costs of Brexit was extraordinary: forecast after forecast supported similar conclusions (which have so far proved accurate in the aftermath of the Brexit vote).
  15. "Brexit survey". Initiative on Global Markets, University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  16. "Brexit survey II". Initiative on Global Markets, University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 4 March 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  17. Sodha, Sonia; Helm, Toby; Inman, Phillip (28 May 2016). "Economists overwhelmingly reject Brexit in boost for Cameron". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  18. "Most economists still pessimistic about effects of Brexit". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
  19. "Brexit will damage UK standards of living, say economists". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2017. Unlike the short-term effects of Brexit, which have been better than most had predicted, most economists say the ultimate impact of leaving the EU still appears likely to be more negative than positive. But the one thing almost all agree upon is that no one will know how big the effects are for some time.
  20. Wren-Lewis, Simon. "Why is the academic consensus on the cost of Brexit being ignored?". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
  21. "Brexit to Hit Jobs, Wealth and Output for Years to Come, Economists Say". Bloomberg L.P. 22 February 2017. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2017. The U.K. economy may be paying for Brexit for a long time to come ... It won't mean Armageddon, but the broad consensus among economists—whose predictions about the initial fallout were largely too pessimistic—is for a prolonged effect that will ultimately diminish output, jobs and wealth to some degree.
  22. Johnson, Paul; Mitchell, Ian (1 March 2017). "The Brexit vote, economics, and economic policy". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 33 (suppl_1): S12–S21. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grx017. ISSN 0266-903X.
  23. "Most economists say Brexit will hurt the economy—but one disagrees". The Economist. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
  24. "This is the real reason the UK's economic forecasts look so bad". The Independent. 23 November 2017. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2017. One thing economists do generally agree on is that leaving the European Union and putting new trade barriers between Britain and our largest and closest trading partners is extremely unlikely to boost UK productivity growth—and is far more likely to slow it
  25. Al Jazeera. (2018). Brexit jargon: From backstop to no deal, 17 key terms explained (Al Jazeera) Archived 22 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  26. BBC. (2019). Brexit: Jargon-busting guide to the key terms (BBC) Archived 7 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  27. "1967: De Gaulle says "non" to Britain – again". BBC News. 27 November 1976. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  28. "Into Europe". Parliament of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  29. "English text of EU Accession Treaty 1972, Cmnd. 7463" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  30. "1973: Britain joins the EEC". BBC News. 1 January 1973. Archived from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  31. Alex May, Britain and Europe since 1945 (1999).
  32. "BBC on this day – 26 – 1975: Labour votes to leave the EEC". BBC. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  33. the Shetland Islands and the Outer Hebrides
  34. Miller, Vaughne (13 July 2015). "Research Briefings – The 1974–1975 UK Renegotiation of EEC Membership and Referendum". Parliament of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 19 May 2016. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. "Who Voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district level analysis". Becker, Fetzer, Novy, University of Warwick. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  36. Vaidyanathan, Rajini (4 March 2010). "Michael Foot: What did the "longest suicide note" say?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
  37. Dury, Hélène. "Black Wednesday" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
  38. "EU treaties". Europa (web portal). Archived from the original on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  39. "EUROPA The EU in brief". Europa (web portal). Archived from the original on 26 July 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  40. Bogdanor also quotes John Locke's The Second Treatise of Government: 'The Legislative cannot transfer the power of making laws to any other hands. For it being but a delegated power from the People, they who have it cannot pass it to others.' – Bogdanor, Vernon (8 June 1993). Why the people should have a vote on Maastricht: The House of Lords must uphold democracy and insist on a referendum Archived 29 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Independent.
  41. Bogdanor, Vernon (26 July 1993). Futility of a House with no windows Archived 8 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Independent.
  42. Kuper, Simon (20 June 2019). "How Oxford university shaped Brexit – and Britain's next prime minister". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 21 June 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  43. Heath, Anthony; Jowell, Roger; Taylor, Bridget; Thomson, Katarina (1 January 1998). "Euroscepticism and the referendum party". British Elections & Parties Review. 8 (1): 95–110. doi:10.1080/13689889808413007. ISSN 1368-9886.
  44. Carter, N.; Evans, M.; Alderman, K.; Gorham, S. (1 July 1998). "Europe, Goldsmith and the Referendum Party". Parliamentary Affairs. 51 (3): 470–485. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pa.a028811. ISSN 0031-2290.
  45. "UK Election 1997". Politicsresources.net. Archived from the original on 21 September 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  46. "10 key lessons from the European election results". The Guardian. 26 May 2014. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
  47. "Does Migration Cause Extreme Voting?" (PDF). Becker and Fetzer, University of Warwick. 18 October 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  48. Matt Osborn (7 May 2015). "2015 UK general election results in full". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
  49. Mortimore, Roger. "Polling history: 40 years of British views on "in or out" of Europe". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  50. Gifford, Chris. The Making of Eurosceptic Britain. Ashgate Publishing, 2014. pp. 55, 68
  51. Foster, Anthony. Euroscepticism in Contemporary British Politics: Opposition to Europe in the Conservative and Labour Parties since 1945. Routledge, 2003. pp. 68–69
  52. Taylor, Graham. Understanding Brexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the European Union. Emerald Group Publishing, 2017. p. 91. Quote: "The coalition that came together to secure Brexit, however, included a diverse range of individuals, groups and interests. [...] There were also supporters of Brexit on the left ..."
  53. Tarran, Brian (8 April 2016). "The Economy: a Brexit vote winner?". Significance. 13 (2): 6–7. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2016.00891.x.
  54. Nicholas Watt (29 June 2012). "Cameron defies Tory right over EU referendum: Prime minister, buoyed by successful negotiations on eurozone banking reform, rejects "in or out" referendum on EU". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2012. David Cameron placed himself on a collision course with the Tory right when he mounted a passionate defence of Britain's membership of the EU and rejected out of hand an "in or out" referendum.
  55. Sparrow, Andrew (1 July 2012). "PM accused of weak stance on Europe referendum". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2012. Cameron said he would continue to work for "a different, more flexible and less onerous position for Britain within the EU".
  56. "David Cameron 'prepared to consider EU referendum'". BBC News. 1 July 2012. Archived from the original on 2 July 2012. Retrieved 2 July 2012. Mr Cameron said ... he would 'continue to work for a different, more flexible and less onerous position for Britain within the EU'.
  57. "David Cameron promises in/out referendum on EU". BBC News. 23 January 2013. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  58. "At-a-glance: Conservative manifesto". BBC News. 15 April 2015. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  59. Perraudin, Frances (14 April 2015). "Conservatives election manifesto 2015 – the key points". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
  60. "David Cameron sets out EU reform goals". BBC News. 11 November 2015. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
  61. New Open Europe/ComRes poll: Failure to win key reforms could swing UK's EU referendum vote Archived 15 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine openeurope.org, 16 December 2015.
  62. Spaventa, Eleanore. "Explaining the EU deal: the "emergency brake"". Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  63. "Prime Minister sets out legal framework for EU withdrawal". UK Parliament. 22 February 2016. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
  64. "The process for withdrawing from the European Union" (PDF). Government of the United Kingdom. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  65. "Three years since the Brexit vote, meet the man behind Leave and Remain". ITV News. 23 June 2019. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  66. "EU referendum: BBC forecasts UK votes to leave". BBC News. 24 June 2016. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  67. "EU Referendum Results". Sky (United Kingdom). Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  68. "Brexit: David Cameron to quit after UK votes to leave EU". BBC News. 24 June 2016. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  69. Hooton, Christopher (24 June 2016). "Brexit: Petition for second EU referendum so popular the government site's crashing". The Independent. Independent Print Limited. Archived from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  70. Boult, Adam (26 June 2016). "Petition for second EU referendum attracts thousands of signatures". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
  71. "Brexit: Petition for second EU referendum rejected". BBC News. 9 July 2016. Archived from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 9 July 2016.
  72. "EU referendum results". Electoral Commission. Archived from the original on 30 June 2019.
  73. Sascha O Becker, Thiemo Fetzer, Dennis Novy. "Who voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district-level analysis". Economic Policy, Volume 32, Issue 92, 1 October 2017, pp. 601–650. Quotes: "We find that fundamental characteristics of the voting population were key drivers of the Vote Leave share, in particular, their education profiles, their historical dependence on manufacturing employment as well as low income and high unemployment. At the much finer level of wards within cities, we find that areas with deprivation in terms of education, income and employment were more likely to vote Leave. [...] A larger flow of migrants from Eastern Europe reaching a local authority area with a larger share of unqualified people or a larger share of manufacturing workers is also associated with a larger Vote Leave share".
  74. Noel Dempsey & Neil Johnston. "Political disengagement in the UK: who is disengaged?" Archived 29 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine. House of Commons briefing paper. House of Commons Library, 14 September 2018. pp. 25–26
  75. Hobolt, Sara B. (20 October 2016). "The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent" (PDF). Journal of European Public Policy. 23 (9): 1259–1277. doi:10.1080/13501763.2016.1225785. ISSN 1350-1763. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2019.
  76. Becker, Sascha O.; Fetzer, Thiemo; Novy, Dennis (1 October 2017). "Who voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district-level analysis". Economic Policy. 32 (92): 601–650. doi:10.1093/epolic/eix012. ISSN 0266-4658.
  77. Carreras, Miguel (1 December 2019). "'What do we have to lose?': Local economic decline, prospect theory, and support for Brexit". Electoral Studies. 62: 102094. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102094. ISSN 0261-3794.
  78. Koltai, Jonathan; Varchetta, Francesco Maria; McKee, Martin; Stuckler, David (2020). "Deaths of Despair and Brexit Votes: Cross-Local Authority Statistical Analysis in England and Wales". American Journal of Public Health. 110 (3): e1–e6. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305488. ISSN 0090-0036. PMID 31855481.
  79. Fetzer, Thiemo (2019). "Did Austerity Cause Brexit?". American Economic Review. 109 (11): 3849–3886. doi:10.1257/aer.20181164. ISSN 0002-8282.
  80. Spratt, Vicky (26 September 2018). "The truth about young people and Brexit". BBC Three. Archived from the original on 25 November 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  81. "How the United Kingdom voted on Thursday ... and why" Archived 1 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Lord Ashcroft Polls. 24 June 2016.
  82. Kentish, Benjamin (29 March 2017). "Article 50 was designed for European dictators, not the UK, says man who wrote it". The Independent. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  83. Rankin, Jennifer; Borger, Julian; Rice-Oxley, Mark (25 June 2016). "What is article 50 and why is it so central to the Brexit debate?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  84. Renwick, Alan (19 January 2016). "What happens if we vote for Brexit?". The Constitution Unit Blog. Archived from the original on 31 July 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  85. In a leaflet sent out before the referendum, the UK government stated "This is your decision. The Government will implement what you decide." "Why the Government believes that voting to remain in the European Union is the best decision for the UK. The EU referendum, Thursday, 23 June 2016" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
  86. Cooper, Charlie (27 June 2016). "David Cameron rules out second EU referendum after Brexit". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  87. Mason, Rowena; Oltermann, Philip (20 July 2016). "Angela Merkel backs Theresa May's plan not to trigger Brexit this year". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 July 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  88. Spence, Alex (2 October 2016). "Theresa May to begin Brexit process by end of March". Politico. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  89. Cooper, Charlie (9 December 2016). "British MPs back Theresa May's Brexit timetable". Politico. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  90. Bowcott, Owen; Mason, Rowena; Asthana, Anushka (24 January 2017). "Supreme court rules parliament must have vote to trigger article 50". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  91. "Queen gives royal assent to Article 50 Bill, clearing way for Theresa May to start European Union exit talks". The Telegraph. 16 March 2017. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  92. "Article 50: UK set to formally trigger Brexit process". BBC. 29 March 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  93. "'No turning back' on Brexit as Article 50 triggered". BBC News. 30 March 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  94. "Brexit ruling: UK can cancel decision, EU court says". BBC News. 10 December 2018. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  95. Taylor, Robert; Wilson, Adelyn (11 December 2018). "Revoking Article 50 after the ECJ's ruling". The UK in a Changing Europe. Archived from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  96. "The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU: PM speech". Gov.uk. 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 22 January 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  97. "Council (Art 50) authorises the start of Brexit talks and adopts negotiating directives – Consilium". Europa (web portal). Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  98. "Brexit: UK caves in to EU demand to agree divorce bill before trade talks" Archived 20 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 19 June 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2017
  99. Foster, Peter (29 April 2017). "EU Brexit guidelines: What's in the document, and what it really means". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  100. "Divorce settlement or leaving the club? A breakdown of the Brexit bill" March 2017, A breakdown of the Brexit bill (2017) Archived 9 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  101. "The Latest: EU's Brexit Chief Welcomes 'Constructive' Speech". USNews.com. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  102. McAuley, James (9 June 2017). "After shocking British vote result, Europe ponders fate of Brexit negotiations". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  103. Hunt, Alex (26 June 2019). "Theresa May and the DUP deal: What you need to know". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  104. Roberts, Dan (20 June 2017). "Brexit: UK caves in to EU demand to agree divorce bill before trade talks". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  105. "Terms of Reference for the Article 50 TEU negotiations" (PDF). European Commission. 19 June 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  106. Walker, Nigel; McGuinness, Terry; Keen, Richard; Hinson, Suzanna; Curtis, John; Miller, Vaughne; Lang, Arabella (12 July 2017). "Brexit: the talks begin". House of Commons Library. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 20 August 2017. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  107. "Let the Brussels games begin". Economist.com. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
  108. "Brexit breakthrough: May pledges 'no hard border' as commission says 'sufficient progress' made". The Irish Times. 8 December 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  109. Hope, Christopher (11 December 2017). "Theresa May to tell Ireland 'nothing is agreed' on terms of Brexit as row over deal intensifies". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  110. Boffey, Daniel (15 December 2017). "EU leaders agree Brexit talks can move on to phase two". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  111. Castle, Stephen (19 March 2018). "U.K. Reaches Brexit Transition Deal With E.U." The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 June 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  112. "Border deal is not likely until October, Taoiseach claims". The Irish Times. 11 June 2018. Archived from the original on 11 July 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  113. Carswell, Simon (12 October 2018). "Brexit explained: What is Theresa May's Chequers plan?". Irish Times. Archived from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  114. Stewart, Heather (9 July 2018). "Brexit secretary David Davis resigns plunging government into crisis". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  115. Stewart, Heather; Crerar, Pippa; Sabbagh, Dan (9 July 2018). "May's plan 'sticks in the throat', says Boris Johnson as he resigns over Brexit". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  116. Cooper, Charlie; Bayer, Lili; Barigazzi, Jacopo (14 November 2018). "Theresa May calls Cabinet meeting to approve Brexit 'draft agreement'". Politico. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  117. "Brexit: Cabinet backs draft agreement". BBC News. 14 November 2018. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
  118. "Brexit: Dominic Raab and Esther McVey among ministers to quit over EU agreement". BBC News. 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
  119. "EU leaders agree UK's Brexit deal at Brussels summit". BBC News. 25 November 2019. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  120. Cook, Lorne; Lawless, Jill; Casert, Raf (25 November 2018). "EU seals Brexit deal as May faces a hard sell at home". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  121. Stewart, Heather (25 November 2018). "Not sad but defiant: Theresa May makes case for Brexit deal". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  122. "Theresa May calls off vote on Brexit deal after massive opposition from Tory rebels". The Independent. 10 December 2018. Archived from the original on 19 June 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
  123. Boffey, Daniels (10 December 2018). "EU figures rule out concessions as May postpones Brexit vote". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  124. "Welsh Labour MPs call for no confidence vote". ITV News. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
  125. Jessica Elgot & Heather Stewart, Theresa May splits Tories over anti-backstop Brexit deal Archived 26 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian (28 January 2019).
  126. Laura Hughes, Eurosceptics still defiant over May's Brexit deal Archived 26 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Financial Times (13 December 2018).
  127. William Booth, May's plan for phasing Britain out of the E.U. Archived 26 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Washington Post (25 November 2018).
  128. Jack Maidment, Eurosceptic Tories publish analysis of Theresa May's Brexit deal and claim UK could pay EU £39bn 'for nothing' Archived 26 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Daily Telegraph (18 November 2018).
  129. "Brexit: Theresa May's deal is voted down in historic Commons defeat". BBC News. 15 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  130. Voce, Antonio; Clarke, Seán; Voce, Antonio; Clarke, Seán. "How did your MP vote on May's Brexit deal?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
  131. Stewart, Heather (15 January 2019). "Theresa May loses Brexit deal vote by majority of 230". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
  132. Rayner, Gordon; Maidment, Jack; Crisp, James; Yorke, Harry (16 January 2019). "No confidence vote result: Theresa May wins confidence vote but is snubbed by Jeremy Corbyn over cross-party Brexit talks". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  133. "Another delay: Britain's May promises Brexit vote in parliament by March 12". Reuters. 24 February 2019. Archived from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2020.
  134. "Brexit: MPs reject Theresa May's deal for a second time". BBC News. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 13 March 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
  135. "Third Brexit vote must be different – Speaker". BBC News. 18 March 2019. Archived from the original on 18 March 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  136. "Brexit: MPs face new vote on withdrawal deal". BBC News. 29 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  137. "Brexit: Brexit: MPs reject May's EU withdrawal agreement". BBC News. 29 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  138. "Brexit: 'Tired' public needs a decision, says Theresa May". BBC News. 20 March 2019. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
  139. "Statutory Instruments – 2019 No. 859 – Exiting The European Union – The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (Exit Day) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2019" (PDF). The Stationery Office Limited. 11 April 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
  140. "Brexit: Theresa May to urge MPs to back deal as delay agreed". BBC News. 22 March 2019. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
  141. Ciaran McGrath (26 March 2019). "Get us out NOW! May's Brexit delay 'UNLAWFUL' – MPs issue shock legal block". Daily Express. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019. ... Brexiteer MPs led by Sir Bill Cash have written to Mrs May warning of their "serious legal objections" to her decision to delay Article 50, and hence Brexit, beyond 29 March. ... The Government is confident a proposed law change altering the Brexit date is "legally correct" in response to concerns raised by lawyers. Ministers were pressed over the legality of the statutory instrument (SI) to change the exit day of the UK's withdrawal from the EU by Lord Pannick, who successfully led the Supreme Court Article 50 case against the Government. ... The concern centres on the SI, due to be debated by peers and MPs on Wednesday, containing two alternative exit days.
  142. "Amendment to the Motion – Business of the House – Motion to Agree – in the House of Lords at 3:06 pm on 26th March 2019". TheyWorkForYou. 26 March 2019. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019. ... Lord Pannick: ... A number of lawyers have expressed concern about the legality of this statutory instrument. The concern is that it sets out two alternative exit days: 12 April or 22 May.
  143. Andrew Sparrow; Jedidajah Otte (27 March 2019). "All eight indicative vote options on Brexit defeated by MPs – as it happened". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019. The statutory instrument needs to be passed by both the Commons and the Lords. In the Lords peers passed it earlier today, without a division
  144. Daniel Thomas (27 March 2019). "MPs vote down rival Brexit plans as May offers to resign – as it happened". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019. MPs delay Brexit date by 441 to 105
  145. "New Brexit deadline set for 31 October". 11 April 2019. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  146. European Council (10 April 2019). "Special meeting of the European Council (Art. 50) (10 April 2019) – Conclusions" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  147. "European Council Art. 50 conclusions, 21 March 2019". European Council. 21 March 2019. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  148. Walker, Peter (11 October 2019). "Entering 'the tunnel': what does it mean for the Brexit talks?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  149. "European Commission Recommendation" (PDF). European Commission. 17 October 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  150. "Revised Political Declaration" (PDF). European Commission. 17 October 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  151. Kirby, Jen (17 October 2019). "The UK and EU have a new Brexit agreement. But it's not a done deal yet". Vox. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  152. Herszenhorn, David M.; Casalicchio, Emilio; Courea, Eleni (17 October 2019). "EU and UK say they have Brexit deal". Politico. Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  153. "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019". Act of 9 September 2019. Archived from the original on 29 September 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  154. Kraemer, Daniel (27 September 2019). "Can a no-deal Brexit still happen?". Archived from the original on 1 October 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
  155. "Brexit: European leaders agree extension to 31 January". 28 October 2019. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  156. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (Exit Day) (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 2019 SI 2019 No. 1423, 30 October 2019. Archived 10 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine(more detailed version Archived 15 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine)
  157. "Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019". legislation.gov.uk. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
  158. Staff (13 December 2019). "Election results 2019: Boris Johnson returns to power with big majority". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  159. editor, Heather Stewart Political (20 December 2019). "Brexit: parliament passes withdrawal agreement bill by 124 majority". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  160. "Brexit bill receives Royal Assent". BBC News. 23 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
  161. Wishart, Ian (23 January 2020). "Brexit Deal Passes Penultimate EU Hurdle With Committee Approval". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  162. "Brexit: Boris Johnson signs withdrawal agreement in Downing Street". BBC News. 24 January 2020. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  163. Castle, Stephen (22 January 2020). "U.K. Takes a Major Step Toward Brexit". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  164. McGuinness, Alan (29 January 2020). "European Parliament ratifies Boris Johnson's Brexit deal ahead of exit day". Sky News. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  165. Payne, Adam (30 January 2020). "The European Parliament joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne in an emotional Brexit farewell to the UK". Reuters. Business Insider. Archived from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  166. Press send for Brexit: EU seals UK withdrawal by email Archived 31 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 30 January 2020.
  167. "European Union (Withdrawal) Bill 2017–19 – UK Parliament". Parliament of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
  168. "EU repeal bill wins first Commons vote". BBC News. 12 September 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  169. "Conclusions adopted by the European Council (Art. 50), 29 June 2018" (PDF). europa.eu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  170. "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018". legislation.gov.uk. 2018. sec. 20(1). Archived from the original on 6 February 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2019. "exit day" means 29 March 2019 at 11.00 p.m.(and see subsections (2) to (5)); Subsections (2) to (5) provide the option of amending the date by a Ministerial Regulation "if the day or time on or at which the Treaties are to cease to apply to the United Kingdom in accordance with Article 50(3) of the Treaty on European Union is different from that specified in the definition of 'exit day' in subsection (1)." Article 50(3) of the Treaty on European Union Archived 31 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine states: The Treaties shall cease to apply to the State in question from the date of entry into force of the withdrawal agreement or, failing that, two years after the notification referred to in paragraph 2, unless the European Council, in agreement with the Member State concerned, unanimously decides to extend this period.
  171. "What is "exit day"? Dispelling misconceptions about the extension of Article 50". House of Commons Library. 19 March 2019. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
  172. The UK legislation states the day and hour as "29 March 2019 at 11.00 p.m." in the knowledge that the UK Interpretation Act 1978 s.4 (a) prescribes that "An Act or provision of an Act comes into force where provision is made for it to come into force on a particular day, at the beginning of that day".
  173. "Key dates in Brexit process". Reuters. 2 February 2018. Archived from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  174. Walker, Nigel (6 February 2019). "House of Commons Briefing Paper 7960, summary". House of Commons. Archived from the original on 16 February 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
  175. "Directives for the negotiation of an agreement with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal from the European Union (Section II.8)". Europa (web portal). Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  176. Hannah White and Jill Rutter, "Legislating Brexit: The Great Repeal Bill and the wider legislative challenge", Institute for Government, 20 March 2017, p. 9 Archived 21 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  177. "Brexit could place 'huge burden' on Parliament". BBC. 20 March 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
  178. "Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018" (PDF). www.legislation.gov.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
  179. Asthana, Anushka; Walker, Peter (19 April 2017). "Theresa May calls for general election to secure Brexit mandate". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  180. "General election 2017: UKIP needed to stop Brexit 'backsliding'". BBC News. 28 April 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
  181. Anushka Asthana (24 April 2017). "Labour vows to rip up and rethink Brexit white paper". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
  182. "General Election 2017: Labour's 'day one' pledge to EU nationals". BBC News. 25 April 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
  183. "'This is your chance,' Lib Dems tell voters opposed to Hard Brexit". The Herald. 18 April 2017. Archived from the original on 25 August 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
  184. "Green Party leader Caroline Lucas calls for second EU referendum". The Independent. 2 September 2016. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  185. "Lib Dem leader Tim Farron responds to Theresa May's general election announcement". The Independent. 18 April 2017. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  186. "Stronger for Scotland" (PDF). SNP website. 1 June 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  187. "SNP manifesto summary: Key points at-a-glance". BBC News. 30 May 2017. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  188. "Election 2017 Results". BBC News. 9 June 2017. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  189. "Conservatives agree pact with DUP to support May government". BBC News. 26 June 2017. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  190. Cecil, Nicholas (10 October 2019). "Brexit news latest: Poll of polls says Britain is now against leaving EU as most want to stay". Evening Standard. London Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
  191. Kellner, Peter (10 October 2019). "Everyone says they know what the public think about Brexit – here's the polling data that tells you who's right". The Independent. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
  192. Curtice, John (8 February 2019). "Has There Been a Shift in Support for Brexit?". What UK Thinks. Archived from the original on 16 May 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2019. Until the 2017 general election typically more people said that the decision to leave the EU was right than stated it was wrong. Since then the oppose has been the case ... The reason why the balance of opinion had shifted in favour of Remain, even though very few Leave voters had changed their minds, was because those who had not voted before (in some cases because they had been too young to do so) were now decisively in favour of Remain.
  193. Curtice, John (17 October 2019). "Have UK voters changed their minds on Brexit?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2019. On average, during the last month, polls that ask people how they would vote in another referendum suggest that 88% of those who backed Remain would do so again. Among those who voted Leave, 86% have not changed their minds.
  194. "Article 50 petition to cancel Brexit passes 6m signatures". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  195. "Article 50: MPs debate six-million-signature petition". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  196. "Scotland Says New Vote on Independence Is 'Highly Likely'". The New York Times. 25 June 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  197. Simons, Ned (24 January 2016). "Nicola Sturgeon Denies She Has "Machiavellian" Wish For Brexit". The Huffington Post UK. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  198. Stewart, Heather (16 March 2017). "Theresa May rejects Nicola Sturgeon's referendum demand". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 May 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  199. "Schottland – Massendemo für die Unabhängigkeit" [Scotland – mass demonstration for independence] (in German). tagesschau.de. 6 October 2019. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
  200. ala/dpa/Reuters/AFP (6 October 2019). "Brexit-Verhandlungen – Tittle-Tattle" [Brexit Negotiations – Tittle-Tattle]. Spiegel Online (in German). Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
  201. "Scotland, Wales and London want special Brexit deal if Northern Ireland gets one". Reuters. 4 December 2017. Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
  202. "Whitehall lawyers drawing up plans to challenge Continuity Bill in courts". Herald Scotland. 2018. Archived from the original on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  203. "Forging a new UK-wide agricultural framework post-Brexit". LSE. 2018. Archived from the original on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  204. "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018". www.legislation.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 6 August 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  205. "EU Continuity Bill was within competence of Scottish Parliament when it was passed". Holyrood Magazine. 13 December 2018. Archived from the original on 6 August 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  206. "European Commission – PRESS RELEASES – Press release – Brexit: European Commission implements "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors". europa.eu. Archived from the original on 5 September 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
  207. "Theresa May signals Whitehall rejig with two new Cabinet posts". civilserviceworld.com. CSW. Archived from the original on 14 July 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
  208. Trading places / Negotiating post-Brexit deals. Economist, 4–10 February 2017, p. 25
  209. "Temporary tariff regime for no deal Brexit published". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  210. O'Carroll, Lisa; Boffey, Daniel (13 March 2019). "UK will cut most tariffs to zero in event of no-deal Brexit". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  211. Glaze, Ben; Bloom, Dan; Owen, Cathy (13 March 2019). "Car prices to rise by £1,500 as no-deal tariffs are revealed". walesonline. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  212. "No-deal tariff regime would be 'sledgehammer' to UK economy, CBI warns". Aol.co.uk. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  213. "This is why farmers are suddenly very worried about a no-deal Brexit". The Independent. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  214. "No-deal plans a bid 'to break EU unity'". BBC News. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  215. Sandford, Alisdair (13 March 2019). "UK zero-tariff plan for no-deal Brexit would not spare some EU imports" (PDF). Euronews.com. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  216. McCormack, Jayne (14 March 2019). "Does NI tariffs plan violate WTO law?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  217. "EU to apply normal tariffs on trade with UK in case of no-deal Brexit". Reuters. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  218. "EU says UK no-deal Brexit tariff plan is 'illegal'". The Independent. 15 March 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
  219. Miller, Vaughne; Mars, Sylvia de (1 November 2019). "Brexit questions in national and EU courts". Archived from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2020. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  220. "Article 50 Challenge". CrowdJustice. Archived from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  221. "Robert Craig: New Article 50 Case Resoundingly Rejected by the Divisional Court". UK Constitutional Law Association. 26 June 2018. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  222. 'Grounds for Judicial Review' in Wilson v Prime Minister, 13 August 2018. Archived 25 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  223. "UKEU Challenge Update" (PDF). UKEU Challenge. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  224. "Wilson & others –v- The Prime Minister (Respondent 1) and The Electoral Commission (Respondent 2)". www.judiciary.uk. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
  225. Maugham, Jolyon (21 September 2018). "Today's ruling shows the triggering of article 50 can be reversed". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  226. UK Supreme Court. "Reasons for the determination in the matter of Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (Appellant) v Wightman and others (Respondents)" (PDF). UK Supreme Court. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  227. "The United Kingdom is free to revoke unilaterally the notification of its intention to withdraw from the EU" (PDF). Court of Justice of the European Union. 10 December 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  228. "What is a no-deal Brexit? Here are the consequences of the UK leaving the EU without a deal". inews.co.uk. 4 September 2019. Archived from the original on 10 June 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  229. McClean, Paul (30 May 2017). "After Brexit: the UK will need to renegotiate at least 759 treaties". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 31 May 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2017. Through analysis of the EU treaty database, the FT found 759 separate EU bilateral agreements with potential relevance to Britain, covering trade in nuclear goods, customs, fisheries, trade, transport and regulatory co-operation in areas such as antitrust or financial services. This includes multilateral agreements based on consensus, where Britain must re-approach 132 separate parties. Around 110 separate opt-in accords at the UN and World Trade Organization are excluded from the estimates, as are narrow agreements on the environment, health, research and science. Some additional UK bilateral deals, outside the EU framework, may also need to be revised because they make reference to EU law. Some of the 759 are so essential that it would be unthinkable to operate without them. Air services agreements allow British aeroplanes to land in America, Canada or Israel; nuclear accords permit the trade in spare parts and fuel for Britain's power stations. Both these sectors are excluded from trade negotiations and must be addressed separately.
  230. "Brexit: Everyone Loses, but Britain Loses the Most". PIIE. 1 March 2019. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
  231. "Question C: Leaving the European Union without a trade agreement would have a large negative impact on the UK economy". www.igmchicago.org. Archived from the original on 23 July 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  232. Crowley, Meredith; Exton, Oliver; Han, Lu (21 January 2019). "The impact of Brexit uncertainty on UK exports". VoxEU.org. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  233. "DP13446 Renegotiation of Trade Agreements and Firm Exporting Decisions: Evidence from the Impact of Brexit on UK Exports". cepr.org. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  234. Graziano, Alejandro; Handley, Kyle; Limão, Nuno (2018). "Brexit Uncertainty and Trade Disintegration". doi:10.3386/w25334. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  235. Soegaard, Christian. "Brexit has already hurt EU and non-EU exports by up to 13% – new research". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  236. Douch, Mustapha; Edwards, T. Huw; Soegaard, Christian (2018). "The Trade Effects of the Brexit Announcement Shock". Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  237. Breinlich, Holger; Leromain, Elsa; Novy, Dennis; Sampson, Thomas (2 March 2020). "The Brexit vote and inflation – updated evidence". VoxEU.org. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
  238. Breinlich, Holger; Leromain, Elsa; Novy, Dennis; Sampson, Thomas (12 February 2019). "Voting with their money: Brexit and outward investment by UK firms". VoxEU.org. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  239. "Brexit referendum spurs British companies into investing in EU". Reuters. 11 February 2019. Archived from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  240. "The Government's Own Brexit Analysis Says The UK Will Be Worse Off in Every Scenario Outside The EU". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
  241. "Secret data show Britain worse off under all Brexit scenarios". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
  242. Eichengreen, Barry (7 January 2019). "The international financial implications of Brexit". International Economics and Economic Policy. 16: 37–50. doi:10.1007/s10368-018-0422-x. ISSN 1612-4812. S2CID 159090073.
  243. Armour, John (1 March 2017). "Brexit and financial services". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 33 (suppl_1): S54–S69. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grx014. ISSN 0266-903X.
  244. Andrew Roberts (13 September 2016). "CANZUK: after Brexit, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Britain can unite as a pillar of Western civilisation". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  245. James C. Bennett (24 June 2016). "Brexit boosts 'CANZUK' replacement for European Union: Column". USA Today. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  246. Krugman, Paul (10 July 2018). "Opinion | Brexit Meets Gravity". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  247. 21 August; 2018|#LSEThinks; Brexit, Economics of; Comments, Featured|7 (21 August 2018). "Long read: Can Brexit defy gravity? It is still much cheaper to trade with neighbouring countries". LSE BREXIT. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  248. Sampson, Thomas; Dhingra, Swati; Ottaviano, Gianmarco; Reenen, John Van (2 June 2016). "How 'Economists for Brexit' manage to defy the laws of gravity". VoxEU.org. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  249. Carter, Andrew; Swinney, Paul (2019). "Brexit and the Future of the UK's Unbalanced Economic Geography". The Political Quarterly. 0: 72–83. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.12649. ISSN 1467-923X. What all of these studies agree on is that whichever Brexit deal is struck, even the most advantageous will have a negative impact on future economic growth for all places across the UK in the short to medium term. And they also agree that over the longer term its places that are already struggling that are likely to struggle the most, further exacerbating the country's unbalanced economic geography.
  250. "FactCheck: What are the options for the Irish border after Brexit?". Channel4.com. Archived from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  251. Lyons, Niamh (31 January 2017). "Brexit will not mean hard border, leaders vow". The Times, Ireland edition. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
  252. "Britain does not want return to Northern Ireland border controls, says May". The Irish Times. 26 July 2016. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  253. Brexit: the unexpected threat to peace in Northern Ireland Archived 14 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine Nic Robertson, CNN, 6 April 2018
  254. George Mitchell: UK and Ireland need to realise what's at stake in Brexit talks. Archived 29 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine Belfast Telegraph, 8 April 2018
  255. Brexit threatens Good Friday agreement, Irish PM warns. Archived 31 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine David Smith, The Guardian, 14 March 2018
  256. "Brexit: What are the backstop options?". BBC News. 13 September 2019. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  257. "EU-Austritt des UK: Diese Folgen hat der Brexit für Deutschland und die EU" [UK Exit from EU: Brexit has these consequences for Germany and the EU]. Merkur.de (in German). 22 August 2016. Archived from the original on 9 December 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016. Die Briten haben sich für einen Abschied entschieden, Europa wird nun anders aussehen. Der Kontinent verliert seine (neben Frankreich) stärkste Militärmacht samt Atomwaffenarsenal, seine zweitgrößte Volkswirtschaft, das Land mit der drittgrößten Bevölkerung, die Finanzhauptstadt der Welt und einen von zwei Plätzen im UN-Sicherheitsrat. [The British have decided to leave. Europe will now look different. The continent will be losing its strongest military power (alongside France), ... its second largest economy, the country with the third largest population, the financial capital of the world, and one of two seats on the UN Security Council.]
  258. Hendrik Kafsack (8 August 2016). "EU-Haushalt: Deutschland überweist das meiste Geld an Brüssel". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  259. "Brexit wird teuer für Deutschland". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Reuters/Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 10 September 2016. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  260. Huhe, Narisong; Naurin, Daniel; Thomson, Robert (2020). "Don't cry for me Britannia: The resilience of the European Union to Brexit" (PDF). European Union Politics. 21: 1465116519882096. doi:10.1177/1465116519882096. ISSN 1465-1165.
  261. Gruyter, Caroline de. "There Is Life for the EU After Brexit". Carnegie Europe. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018.
  262. "EMA now operating from Amsterdam" (Press release). European Medicines Agency. 11 March 2019. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
  263. "EMA gets keys to new HQ". The Pharma Letter. 18 November 2019. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
  264. "European bank regulator arrives in Paris in boost to Macron's financial vision for city". The Local. 5 June 2019. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
  265. Farm payments in a 'no deal' Brexit Archived 30 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. House of Commons Library. 15 August 2019.
  266. Common Agricultural Policy Archived 6 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Institute for Government.
  267. Brexit: UK agriculture policy Archived 30 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. House of Commons Library. 11 September 2018.
  268. Briefing Paper: Fisheries and Brexit Archived 9 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. House of Commons Library. 5 September 2019.
  269. "Reality Check: How would Brexit affect the UK's fishing waters?" Archived 1 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 31 May 2016.
  270. Common Fisheries Policy Archived 18 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Institute for Government.
  271. "Main world producers (2007)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  272. Daniel Boffey (15 February 2017). "UK fishermen may not win waters back after Brexit, EU memo reveals". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017. Source: House of Lords, NAFC Marine Centre, University of the Highlands and Islands.
  273. "UK to withdraw from international fishing arrangement" Archived 10 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 2 July 2017.
  274. "Brexit: Spain calls for joint control of Gibraltar". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 June 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
  275. "UK, Spain reach Brexit deal over Gibraltar: Spanish PM", Digital Journal, 18 October 2018, archived from the original on 28 March 2019, retrieved 12 September 2019
  276. "Spanish PM lifts effective veto on Brexit deal after Gibraltar 'guarantee'" Archived 25 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The Irish Times. 24 November 2018.
  277. Mayhew, Ken (1 March 2017). "UK higher education and Brexit". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 33 (suppl_1): S155–S161. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grx012. ISSN 0266-903X.
  278. "It is likely that the UK would wish to remain an associated member of the European Research Area, like Norway and Iceland, in order to continue participating in the EU framework programmes."UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 2015. p. 269. ISBN 978-92-3-100129-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  279. Elgot, Jessica; Elliott, Larry; Davis, Nicola (13 August 2016). "Treasury to guarantee post-Brexit funding for EU-backed projects". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
  280. McKee, Martin; Galsworthy, Mike; Stuckler, David; Jarman, Holly; Greer, Scott; Hervey, Tamara; Fahy, Nick (25 February 2019). "How will Brexit affect health services in the UK? An updated evaluation". The Lancet. 0 (10174): 949–958. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30425-8. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 30819519. S2CID 72334219.
  281. Continuity of supplies Archived 12 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. NHS England.
  282. Siddique, Haroon (12 June 2017). "96% drop in EU nurses registering to work in Britain since Brexit vote". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  283. The European Union (Withdrawal) Bill: Supremacy and the Court of Justice Archived 30 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. House of Commons Library, 8 November 2017.
  284. Explanatory notes on the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 Archived 30 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Stationery Office. pp.4, 8
  285. Managing migration after Brexit Archived 29 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Institute for Government. 8 March 2019.
  286. "The post-Brexit immigration plans at a glance" Archived 26 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. 19 December 2018.
  287. Briefing Paper: EU Settlement Scheme Archived 29 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. House of Commons Library. 19 September 2019.
  288. Future skills-based immigration system: executive summary Archived 29 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Home Office. 19 December 2018.
  289. Forte, Giuseppe; Portes, Jonathan (1 May 2017). "Macroeconomic Determinants of International Migration to the UK". Rochester, NY. SSRN 2979949. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  290. Portes, Jonathan (1 November 2016). "Immigration after Brexit". National Institute Economic Review. 238 (1): R13–R21. doi:10.1177/002795011623800111. ISSN 0027-9501.
  291. "Brexit: What effect could leaving the European Union have on football transfers?". BBC Sport. 31 October 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
  292. "How Brexit will affect Premier League football". Goal.com. 22 March 2019. Archived from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
  293. Aviation and the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA) Archived 30 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Institute for Government. 10 September 2017.
  294. "Flights to and from the UK if there's no Brexit deal". Government of the United Kingdom. 24 September 2018. Archived from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  295. "Getting to Europe Post Brexit – The Impact on Ferry Companies". Atc-logistics.ie. 23 April 2018. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
  296. "Why Brexit may be good for terrorists and the Kremlin and bad for European security". The Washington Post. 2018. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019.
  297. Mia Jankowicz, "Britain's thriving art scene strangled by Brexit chaos" in Politics.co.uk, 20 March 2017: Online Link Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

Relating to court cases

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.