Zeugma and syllepsis

Type 1

Grammatical syllepsis (sometimes also called zeugma): where a single word is used in relation to two other parts of a sentence although the word grammatically or logically applies to only one.^[2][4]

By definition, grammatical syllepsis will often be grammatically "incorrect" according to traditional grammatical rules. However, such solecisms are sometimes not errors but intentional constructions in which the rules of grammar are bent by necessity or for stylistic effect.

• "He works his work, I mine" (Tennyson, "Ulysses").^[5]

It is ungrammatical from a grammarian's viewpoint, because "works" does not grammatically agree with "I": the sentence "I works mine" would be ungrammatical. On the other hand, Tennyson's two sentences could be taken to deploy a different figure of speech, namely "ellipsis". The sentence would be taken to mean,

• "He works his work, [and] I [work] mine."

Read in this way, the conjunction is not ungrammatical.

Sometimes the "error" is logical, rather than grammatical:

• "They saw lots of thunder and lightning."^[6]

Logically, they "saw" only the lightning.

Type 2

Zeugma (often also called syllepsis, or semantic syllepsis): a single word is used with two other parts of a sentence but must be understood differently in relation to each.^{[7][8][9][10]} Example: "He took his hat and his leave." The type of figure is grammatically correct but creates its effect by seeming, at first hearing, to be incorrect by its exploiting multiple shades of meaning in a single word or phrase.

• "Here Thou, great Anna! whom three Realms obey,
  Dost sometimes Counsel take – and sometimes Tea." (Alexander Pope, The Rape of the Lock, Canto III)^[11][12]
• "Miss Bolo [...] went straight home, in a flood of tears and a sedan-chair." (Charles Dickens, The Pickwick Papers, Chapter 35)^[13]
• "When he asked "What in heaven?" she made no reply, up her mind, and a dash for the door." (Flanders and Swann, "Have Some Madeira M'Dear")^[14]
• "They covered themselves with dust and glory." (Mark Twain)^[15]

When the meaning of a verb varies for the nouns following it, there is a standard order for the nouns: the noun first takes the most prototypical or literal meaning of the verb and is followed by the noun or nouns taking the less prototypical or more figurative verb meanings.^[16]

• "The boy swallowed milk and kisses," as contrasted with "The boy swallowed kisses and milk".^[16]

Type 3

The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms offers a much broader definition for zeugma by defining it as any case of parallelism and ellipsis working together so that a single word governs two or more other parts of a sentence.^[17]

• Vicit pudorem libido timorem audacia rationem amentia. (Cicero, Pro Cluentio, VI.15)

  "Lust conquered shame; audacity, fear; madness, reason."

The more usual way of phrasing this would be "Lust conquered shame, audacity conquered fear, and madness conquered reason." The sentence consists of three parallel clauses, called parallel because each has the same word order: subject, verb, object. The verb "conquered" is a common element in each clause. The zeugma is created by removing the second and third instances of "conquered". Removing words that still can be understood by the context of the remaining words is ellipsis.

• Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. (Francis Bacon^[18]).

The more usual way of phrasing this would be "Histories make men wise, poets make them witty, the mathematics make them subtle, natural philosophy makes them deep, moral [philosophy] makes them grave, and logic and rhetoric make them able to contend."

Zeugmas are defined in this sense in Samuel Johnson's 18th-century A Dictionary of the English Language.^[19]

Type 4

A special case of semantic syllepsis occurs when a word or phrase is used both in its figurative and literal sense at the same time.^[3] Then, it is not necessary for the governing phrase to relate to two other parts of the sentence. One example, from the song "What's My Name?", is: "Okay, there we go / Only thing we have on is the radio." Another example is in an advertisement for a transport company: "We go a long way for you." This type of syllepsis is similar to a homonymic pun.

Diazeugma

A diazeugma^[20] is a zeugma whose only subject governs multiple verbs. A diazeugma whose only subject begins the sentence and controls a series of verbs is a "disjunction" (disiunctio) in the Rhetorica ad Herennium.^[21]

• Populus Romanus Numantiam delevit Kartaginem sustulit Corinthum disiecit Fregellas evertit. (Anon. Rhetorica ad Herennium. IV. xxvii.^[21])

  The Roman people destroyed Numantia, razed Carthage, demolished Corinth, and overthrew Fregellae.

• "We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty." (Inaugural address of John F. Kennedy)

Hypozeugma

Hypozeugma^[22] or "adjunctions" (adiunctio)^[23] is used in a construction containing several phrases and occurs when the word or words on which all of the phrases depend are placed at the end.

• Assure yourself that Damon to his Pythias, Pylades to his Orestes, Titus to his Gysippus, Theseus to his Pyrothus, Scipio to his Laelius, was never found more faithful than Euphues will be to his Philautus. (John Lyly, Euphues)^[24]

Prozeugma

A prozeugma,^[25] synezeugmenon, or praeiunctio is a zeugma whose governing word occurs in the first clause of the sentence.^[24]

• Vicit pudorem libido timorem audacia rationem amentia. (Cicero, Pro Cluentio, VI.15)

  "Lust conquered shame; audacity, fear; madness, reason."

• Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtile; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. (Francis Bacon^[18]).

Mesozeugma

A mesozeugma^[26] is a zeugma whose governing word occurs in the middle of the sentence and governs clauses on either side. A mesozeugma whose common term is a verb is called "conjunction" (coniunctio) in the Roman Rhetorica ad Herennium.^[21]

• "What a shame is this, that neither hope of reward, nor feare of reproch could any thing move him, neither the persuasion of his friends, nor the love of his country. [sic]" (Henry Peacham)