Wind power in the Republic of Ireland

Wind turbines on Leitrim's Corrie Mountain, where a peat slide occurred in 2008.

As of 2017, the Republic of Ireland has 2,878 MegaWatts (3,916 MW all-island) of installed wind power nameplate capacity,[1][2] and 1 MW of solar power.[3][4]

In 2015 wind turbines generated 23% of Ireland's average electricity demand, one of the highest electric grid penetration values in the world.[5][6] Ireland's 226 wind farms (276 all-island),[1][7] are almost exclusively onshore, with only the 25MW Arklow Bank Wind Park situated offshore as of 2017.

Ireland's wind power fluctuates between near nothing and 3,071 MW[1] due to fluctuations in the penetration of the wind,[8] with an average (the capacity factor) of 32.3% in 2015.[2] Irish wind power has higher dependability in the gustier Winter months and lower in the Summer.[9]

Ireland uses an EU industry subsidy known as the Public Service Obligation to support development of wind and other domestic power generation,[10] currently levied at €72 per annum per household.[11] In the 2016/17 period, €308 million raised through this levy was planned to be granted to supporting domestic renewable energy schemes. €120.90 million was planned to be granted to peat generation.[12]

Arklow Bank
Altagowlan
Anarget
Astellas
Ballincollig Hill
Ballinlough/Ikerrin
Ballinveny
Ballybane
Ballymartin
Ballywater
Bawnmore
Barnesmore
Beal Hill
Beallough
Beam Hill
Beenageeha
Bellacorick
Bindoo
Black Banks
Boggeragh
Booltiagh
Burtonport
Caherdowney
Caranne Hill
\Cark
Carnsore
Carrigcannon
Carrig
Carrons
Castledockrell
Clydaghroe
Coomacheo 1
Coomacheo 2
Coomatallin
Cornacahan
Corneen
Corry Mountain
Crocane
Crockahenny
Cronalaght
Cronelea
Cronelea Upper
Cuillalea
Culliagh
Curragh, Co Cork
Curraghgraigue
Derrybrien
Derrynadivva
Dromada
Drumlough
Drybridge/Dunmore
Dundalk
Dunmore
Flughland
Gartnaneane
Geevagh
Glackmore
Glenough
Gortahaile
Grouse Lodge
Garracummer
Gneeves
Greenoge
Inverin
Kealkill
Kilgarvan
Kilgarvan Extension
Killybegs
Kilronan
Kilvinane
Kingsmountain
Knockastanna
Knockawarriga
Lacka Cross
Lackan
Lahanaght Hill
Largan Hill
Lenanavea
Lisheen
Loughderryduff
Lurganboy
Mace Upper
Meenachullalan
Meenadreen and Meentycat
Meenanilta
Glanlee Midas
Mienvee
Milane Hill
Moanmore
Moneenatieve
Mount Eagle
Mount Lucas
Mountain Lodge
Mullananalt
Muingnaminnane
Pallas
Raheen Barr
Rahora
Rathmooney
Reenascreena
Richfield
Seltanaveeny
Shannagh
Sheeragh
Skehanagh
Skrine
Snugborough
Sonnagh Old
Sorne Hill
Spion Kop
Slieveragh
Taurbeg
Tournafulla
Tullynamoyle
Tursillagh
Slieve Rushen
Lendrum's Bridge
Callagheen
Hunter's Hill
Slieve Divena
Tappaghan Mountain
Lough Hill
Balloo Wood
Brett Martin
Bessy Bell
Bin Mountain
Bessy Bell
Wolf Bog
Owenreagh
Elliot's Hill
Altahullion
Rigged Hill
Corkey
Gruig
Garves Mountain
Ulster University
Locations of wind farms on and around the island of Ireland

Timeline

External image
Today's prognosis and production

2018

On the 12 January 2018 maximum output reached 2826 MW

2016

On 23 December 2016 as the named Storm Barbara passed close to Ireland, a new record was generated in the Republic of Ireland, peaking at 2,815 MW.[8][13]

2015

View of Ballywater Wind Farm in County Wexford, 21 Enercon E-70.

In 2015 the island had 2,911 MW wind capacity. In 2014, 17.7% of Irish electricity came from wind, second only[14] to the 30% of Denmark at that time. As of March 2015 Ireland has an installed wind power nameplate capacity of 2,230 megawatts (MW),[4] and wind supplied 39% of December's demand.[15] On 7 January 2015, the output from the country's turbines peaked reaching 2,514 megawatts (63% of load), a new record.[14]

2013

By 20 August 2013, Ireland had an installed capacity of 2,232 megawatts.[16] The 2013 figure shows an increase of 232 megawatts compared to the figures reported on 24 March 2012. Average 2013 output to 21 September is 486 Megawatts and Median 2013 Output is 393 Megawatts. Output can be as low as 3 Megawatts on a still day such as 12 July 2013 when a low of 3 Megawatts was reached at 9:30 am[17] which is 0.012% of the Rated Installed Capacity of over 2,200 Megawatts.

2012

As of July 2012, up to 14.8% of Irish electricity has been generated from renewable sources, up from 5% in 1990. Wind is the main source of renewable energy production, increasing from less than 1pc of total renewable production in 1995 to over 40pc today.[18] 2012 capacity is more than four times the total of 495.2 megawatts in 2005. Depending on weather conditions wind power was enough to supply 1.3 million homes in 2012.[19]

2010

On 19 July 2010, the Irish Wind Energy Association reported an installed capacity of 1746 megawatts, enough to power 753,000 households. . Once in April 2010, 50% of electricity demand was met from wind power.[20] However, the wind generation capacity factor for 2010 was approx. 23.5%, giving an annual average wind energy penetration of approx. 11% of total kWh consumed.[21][22]

2009

On 31 July 2009, the output from the country's turbines peaked at 999 megawatts. At that time, 39% of Ireland’s demand for electricity was met from wind.[23] On 24 October 2009, the output exceeded 1000 megawatts for the first time with a peak of 1064 MW.

2008

In 2008 alone, the rate of growth was 54.6%, amongst the highest in the world.[24]

Background, Financing

Wind turbines on Inishmaan

Eddie O’Connor, then CEO of the semi-state owned peat harvesting company, Bord na Móna, commissioned the country’s first "commercial wind farm" in a cutaway peat bog in County Mayo in 1992.[25]

In the Directive[26] 2001/77/EC, otherwise known as the RES-E Directive, the European Union stated a goal to have 22% of the total energy consumed by member states to be produced from renewable energy resources by 2010. As a result, Ireland, in a report titled "Policy Consideration for Renewable Electricity to 2010", made the commitment to have 4% of its total energy consumption come from renewable energy resources by 2002 and 13.2% by 2010. The Department of Communications Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR) founded the Renewable Energy Group (REG) which established the short term analysis group (STAG) to investigate a means of accomplishing this goal. To meet the 2010 target of 13.2%, 1,432 MW of electricity will need to be generated from renewable resources with 1,100 MW being generated from wind resources both onshore and offshore.

Ireland uses an EU industry subsidy known as the Public Service Obligation to support development of wind power.[27] The PSO charge is in place so that money is given to companies for generating electricity from renewable sources and to help fund peat-burning stations, as neither are competitive enough without it. Irish homes are charged €63 a year in the PSO levy, resulting in €328 million going to the Wind and peat companies as of 2015.[28] In 2016, this was increased to €72.[29]

Offshore wind power

The Arklow Bank Wind Park, located 10 km off the coast of Arklow on the Arklow Bank in the Irish Sea, was Ireland's first offshore wind farm. The wind farm is owned and built by GE Energy and was co-developed by Airtricity and GE Energy. The site has 7 GE Energy 3.6 MW turbines that generate a total of 25 MW. The development of the site was originally divided into two phases with the first phase being the current installation of 7 turbines. The second phase was a partnership between Airtricity and Acciona Energy. Acciona Energy had an option to buy the project after the facility is completed. The wind farm was planned to expand to 520 MW of power. However, in 2007, Phase 2 was cancelled.[30]

Although the waters off the Atlantic coastline of Ireland have higher winds, sites along the eastern coastline such as Arklow were chosen because of the shallower waters, which are 20 m deep or less.

The National Offshore Wind Association of Ireland (NOW Ireland) announced in April 2010 that 60,000 potential jobs could be created in the Irish marine, construction, engineering and service industries through the development of offshore wind energy in Irish and European waters. NOW Ireland also announced in the same month that over €50bn was due to be invested in the Irish Sea and Celtic Sea in the next two decades.[31]

In Belfast, the harbour industry is being redeveloped as a hub for offshore windfarm construction, at a cost of about £50m. The work will create 150 jobs in construction, as well as requiring about 1m tonnes of stone from local quarries, which will create hundreds more jobs. "It is the first dedicated harbour upgrade for offshore wind".[32]

Grid connection is currently awarded on a 'first come, first connect' basis through Gate 3 procedures. On examination of the Gate 3 queue, there are a number of large onshore and offshore wind projects that are down the list and will, therefore, be offered grid connection towards the end of the anticipated 18-month processing period commencing in December 2009.[33]

While planning permission normally expires after 5 years, the Planning and Development Act 2000 section 41 allows for a longer period. At present it is common to apply and obtain a 10-year permission for a wind energy development. Section 42 of the above Act originally permitted a 5-year extension of the "appropriate period" provided that substantial works were carried out. This caused major problems as the term "substantial works" was not clearly defined which resulted in a large variety in interpretation of what constituted substantial works among the various planning authorities. This issue was rectified by the Planning and Development (Amendment) Act 2010 section 28 which inserted an additional paragraph allowing a once off extension not exceeding 5 years if "there were considerations of a commercial, economic or technical nature beyond the control of the applicant which substantially militated against either the commencement of development or the carrying out of substantial works pursuant to the planning permission"

The fourth issue regarding the generation of wind power is the Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariff, or REFIT.[34] The purpose of REFIT is to encourage development of renewable energy resources. For wind power production, the current limit to the tariff is 1,450 MW. However, applications currently being processed for grid connections exceed the limit by almost 1,500 MW for a total for nearly 3,000 MW. Since the limit is 1,450 MW, many of the applications for grid connections may not eligible for the tariff.[35]

5 largest onshore wind farms

Wind FarmCompletedCapacity (MW)TurbinesTurbine VendorModelSize (MW)CountyOperator
Meenadreen[36][37] 20179538NordexN90 25002.5DonegalEnergia
Knockacummer 201487.535NordexN90 25002.5CorkBrookfield
Mount Lucas 20148428SiemensSWT-3-0-1013Offaly
Meentycat[38] 20057238Siemens2.3DonegalSSE Renewables[39]
Derrybrien[40] 20066070VestasV520.85GalwayESBI[41]

Controversy

Economy

In 2011, the 120-member Irish Academy of Engineering described wind as "an extremely expensive way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions when compared to other alternatives" like conservation, nuclear energy or the Corrib gas project and Liquified Gas tanker imports at Shannon, concluding that the suggestion of 40% grid penetration by wind, is "unrealistic".[42] By contrast, the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland says wind power costs the same as gas power.[43]

Peat and CO2 impacts

Access roads on top of peatlands results in the drainage and then eventual oxidation of some of the peat. The turbines represent a minor impact,[44] provided that the entire wind farm area is not drained, potentially emitting more CO2 than the turbines would save.[45] Biochemist Mike Hall stated in 2009; "wind farms (built on peat bogs) may eventually emit more carbon than an equivalent coal-fired power station" if drained.[46]

In a 2014 report for the Northern Ireland Environment Agency, which has similar peatland, it notes that siting wind turbines on peatland could release considerable carbon dioxide from the peat, and also damage the peatland contributions to flood control and water quality: "The potential knock-on effects of using the peatland resource for wind turbines are considerable and it is arguable that the impacts on this facet of biodiversity will have the most noticeable and greatest financial implications for Northern Ireland."[47]

The Irish Peatland Conservation Council maintains a database on incidences were turbine construction and their associated works, such as road construction on deep peat, resulted in environmentally degrading "bog bursts"/"peat flows". Events that accelerate the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.[48] Following the Corrie Mountain burst of 2008, Ireland was fined by a European Court over its mishandling of wind farms on peatland.[48][49]

The body representing industrial Peat harvesting in Ireland, Bord na Móna, announced in 2015 the "biggest change of land use in modern Irish history": harvesting energy peat is being phased out by 2030, due to the long expected depletion of the profitable lowland peat[50] at which point the company would complete its transition to becoming a "sustainable biomass, wind and solar power" organization.[51]

Land slides

In Derrybrien County Galway, at the site of what would become Ireland's largest wind farm in 2006, the 70 tower Derrybrien project, construction disrupted the underlying peatland. On 16 October 2003, it caused the 2003 Derrybrien landslide which culminated in an almost 2.5 km long, 450,000 m3 peat slide, polluting a nearby lake and killing 50,000 fish.[52] If all carbon in the slide is being released, it represents 7–15 months of production from the wind farm in avoided carbon dioxide from fossil power.[45] In 2004, engineering companies were convicted of being responsible for the pollution,[53] while the wind farm company was acquitted.[54] The Irish government was convicted in 2008 of poor oversight.[55]

The Irish Peatland Conservation Council maintains a database on incidences where turbine construction and their associated works, such as road construction on deep peat, resulted in environmentally degrading "bog bursts"/"peat flows". Events that accelerate the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.[48] Following the Corrie Mountain burst of 2008, Ireland was fined by a European Court over its mishandling of wind farms on peatland.[48][56] By 2010, at least three wind farm related peat slides had occurred in Ireland.[44]

Environmental Impact & Greenhouse gases

Studies by the Vattenfall electricity company found; electricity generation by Hydroelectric, nuclear stations and wind turbines in-isolation, to all have a far smaller embodied carbon footprint than other sources represented. These studies on the total life-cycle, greenhouse gas emissions, per unit of energy generated take into account the Nordic utilities cradle-to-grave construction emissions etc. These results are largely in-line with those made in 2014 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.[57] However they do not assess real-world integrated grid findings and the actual pollution emitted from the addition of wind energy into an electric grid.[58][59][60]

As Ireland moved its electricity production from coal and peat to gas and wind, its CO2 emissions were reduced by 29% over 15 years (from 2001 to 2015) while generation increased.[61]

In a typical study of a wind farms Life cycle assessment (LCA), in isolation, it usually results in similar findings as the following 2006 analysis of 3 installations in the US Midwest, were the carbon dioxide(co2) emissions of wind power ranged from 14 to 33 metric ton per GWh(14 - 33 gCO2/kWh) of energy produced, with most of the CO2 emissions coming from the production of concrete for wind-turbine foundations.[62]

However, when approached from the effects on the grid as a whole, that assess wind turbines' ability to reduce a country's total electric grid emission intensity, a study by the Irish national grid, a grid that is predominately (~70%) powered by fossil gas, (and if it was 100% gas, would result in emissions of 410 - 650 gCO2/kWh.[63][64]) found that although "Producing electricity from wind reduces the consumption of fossil fuels and therefore leads to [electric grid] emissions savings", with findings in reductions of the grid-wide CO2 emissions to 0.33-0.59 metric ton of CO2 per MWh (330 - 590 gCO2/kWh).[65]

These findings were of relatively "low [emission] savings", as presented in the Journal of Energy Policy, and were largely due to an over-reliance on the results from the analysis of wind farms LCAs in isolation.[59][60] As high electric grid penetration by intermittent power sources e.g. wind power, sources which have low capacity factors due to the weather, either requires the construction of transmission to neighbouring areas, energy storage projects like the 292 MW Turlough Hill Power Station, that have their own additional emission intensity which must be accounted for,[66][67] or the more common practice of requiring a higher reliance on fossil fuels than the spinning reserve requirements necessary to back-up the more dependable/baseload power sources, such as hydropower and nuclear energy.[59]

This higher dependence on back-up/Load following power plants to ensure a steady power grid output has the knock-on-effect of more frequent inefficient (in CO2e g/kW·h) throttling up and down of these other power sources in the grid to accommodate the intermittent power source's variable output. When one includes the intermittent sources total effect it has on other power sources in the grid system, that is, including these inefficient start up emissions of backup power sources to cater for wind energy, into wind energy's total system wide life cycle, this results in a higher real-world emission intensity related to wind energy than the in-isolation g/kW·h value, a statistic that is determined by looking at the power source in isolation and thus ignores all down-stream detrimental/inefficiency effects it has on the grid.[59] In a 2012 paper that appeared in the Journal of Industrial Ecology it states.[58]

The thermal efficiency of fossil-based power plants is reduced when operated at fluctuating and suboptimal loads to supplement wind power, which may degrade, to a certain extent, the GHG (Greenhouse gas) benefits resulting from the addition of wind to the grid. A study conducted by Pehnt and colleagues (2008) reports that a moderate level of [grid] wind penetration (12%) would result in efficiency penalties of 3% to 8%, depending on the type of conventional power plant considered. Gross and colleagues (2006) report similar results, with efficiency penalties ranging from nearly 0% to 7% for up to 20% [of grid] wind penetration. Pehnt and colleagues (2008) conclude that the results of adding offshore wind power in Germany on the background power systems maintaining a level supply to the grid and providing enough reserve capacity amount to adding between 20 and 80 g CO2-eq/kWh to the life cycle GHG emissions profile of wind power.

According to the IPCC, wind turbines when assessed in isolation, have a median life cycle emission value of between 12 and 11 (gCO2eq/kWh). While the more dependable alpine Hydropower and nuclear stations have median total life cycle emission values of 24 and 12 g CO2-eq/kWh respectively.[63][64]

Regarding interconnections, Ireland is connected to adjacent UK National Grid at an electricity interconnection level (transmission capacity relative to production capacity) of 9%.[68] The two grids have a high wind correlation of 0.61, whereas the wind correlation between the Irish grid and the Danish grid is low at 0.09.[69]

Tourism

One major aspect of wind farms in Ireland is tourist attraction and also local attraction. The Bord na Mona wind farm in Mount Lucas, Daingean, Co.Offaly has provided a local walk way through the newly established wind farm that attracts people of all ages. The walk way provides a safe environment off road for walking, running and cycling. The walk way is approximately nine kilometres in distance with numerous stop off points for breaks. Maps can also be located in a variety of locations on the walk for guidance around the wind farm and back to allocated car parks. The walk way also provides aesthetic scenery on a relatively flat landscape. Such a walk attracts many people year round and circulates money back into the local community as tourists stop off in local shops.[70]

Grid study in Ireland

An Irish study of the grid indicates that it would be feasible to accommodate 42% (of demand) renewables in the electricity mix.[71] This acceptable level of renewable penetration was found in what the study called Scenario 5, provided 47% of electrical capacity (different from demand) with the following mix of renewable energies:

  • 6,000 MW wind
  • 360 MW base load renewables
  • 285 MW additional variable renewables (other intermittent sources)

The study cautions that various assumptions were made that "may have understated dispatch restrictions, resulting in an underestimation of operational costs, required wind curtailment, and CO2 emissions" and that "The limitations of the study may overstate the technical feasibility of the portfolios analyzed..."

Scenario 6, which proposed renewables providing 59% of electrical capacity and 54% of demand had problems. Scenario 6 proposed the following mix of renewable energies:

  • 8,000 MW wind
  • 392 MW base load renewables
  • 1,685 MW additional variable renewables (other intermittent sources)

The study found that for Scenario 6, "a significant number of hours characterized by extreme system situations occurred where load and reserve requirements could not be met. The results of the network study indicated that for such extreme renewable penetration scenarios, a system re-design is required, rather than a reinforcement exercise." The study declined to analyze the cost effectiveness of the required changes because "determination of costs and benefits had become extremely dependent on the assumptions made" and this uncertainty would have impacted the robustness of the results.[72]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Wind Statistics". www.iwea.com. 20 April 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
  2. 1 2 "Fuel Mix Disclosure and CO2 Emissions 2015" (PDF). Commission for Energy Regulation. 26 August 2016. p. 10. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  3. ↑ "Ireland's state power supplier is planning a major leap into solar energy". TheJournal.ie. 11 April 2016.
  4. 1 2 "All-island Wind and Fuel Mix report for March 2015" (PDF). Eirgrid. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2015.
  5. ↑ "Irish Wind Energy Association". 11 January 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  6. ↑ Eoin Burke-Kennedy (27 December 2015). "Over 23% of electricity demand now supplied through wind". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  7. ↑ "Ireland's Clean Energy Hits Record Output". Irish Wind Energy Association. 7 January 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
  8. 1 2 "Wind Record Broken". EirGrid. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  9. ↑ "All-island Wind and Fuel Mix summary, 2014" (PDF). Eirgrid. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-22.
  10. ↑ "Public Service Obligation Levy 2015/2016" (PDF). Commission for Energy Regulation.
  11. ↑ "Electricity bills to rise as regulator increases PSO charge". The Irish Times. 1 August 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
  12. ↑ "Public Service Obligation Levy 2016/17 — Proposed Decision Paper" (PDF). Commission for Energy Regulation. 31 May 2016. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
  13. ↑ "New records set for wind energy generation across Ireland during Christmas 2016". Irish Wind Energy Association. 28 December 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  14. 1 2 "The Future Role of Wind in Ireland's Energy Mix — Irish On-shore Wind In Numbers" (PDF). Engineers Ireland Conference. 15 May 2015. p. 12. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  15. ↑ "Record 2015 Sees Ireland Secure Top 3 Global Ranking for Renewable Wind Energy". Irish Wind Energy Association. 11 January 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2017. wind energy in Ireland having met 39 percent of the full month’s overall electricity demand, compared to 30 percent for the same period in 2014, with production peaking at a record 2037MW on Saturday 19th December 2015
  16. ↑ "Ireland 42% wind powered tonight". reNews. 20 August 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  17. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-21.
  18. ↑ "Airtricity market gain continues with new 16-turbine €50m plant". Irish Independent. 16 June 2012.
  19. ↑ "Wind has capacity to power up to 1.3 million homes". The Irish Times. 24 March 2012.
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  21. ↑ "Ireland Electricity - consumption - Energy". Indexmundi.com. 2016-10-08. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
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  30. ↑ "Airtricity Welcomes Support for Offshore Wind Farm Development" (PDF). Airtricity.com. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
  31. ↑
  32. ↑ Fiona Harvey (6 February 2012). "Offshore wind turbines set to benefit British industries". The Guardian. London.
  33. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2009-12-15.
  34. ↑ "Renewable Energy Feed in Tariff" (PDF). Iwea.com. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
  35. ↑ "IWEA is the national association for the wind industry in Ireland". Iwea.com. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
  36. ↑
  37. ↑
  38. ↑
  39. ↑ "Under Construction". Sserenewables.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
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  41. ↑ "ESB International". Esbi.ie. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
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  43. ↑ SPECIAL REPORT: A look at the wind energy debate Monday, April 07, 2014, By Claire O'Sullivan Irish Examiner Archive
  44. 1 2 Richard Lindsay. Peat bogs and carbon, page 164. University of East London, 14th June 2010
  45. 1 2 Richard Lindsay. Wind farms and blanket peat, page 70, 79-87, 111. University of East London, 2004
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  47. ↑ David Tosh, W. Ian Montgomery & Neil Reid A review of the impacts of onshore wind energy development on biodiversity Archived 31 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine., Northern Ireland Environment Agency, Research and Development Series 14/02, 2014, p.54
  48. 1 2 3 4 "Habitat Loss of Peatlands, Wind Farms on Peatlands". Irish Peatland Conservation Council. Archived from the original on 2014-03-01.
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  54. ↑ "Galway court dismisses pollution prosecution". Rte.ie. 2004-10-19. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
  55. ↑ "EU court rules against Ireland on Derrybrien". Rte.ie. 2008-07-03. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
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  57. ↑
  58. 1 2 Stacey L. Dolan; Garvin A. Heath. "Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Utility-Scale Wind Power Systematic Review and Harmonization". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 16: S136–S154. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00464.x.
  59. 1 2 3 4 Joseph Wheatley (December 2013). "Quantifying CO2 savings from wind power". Energy Policy. 63: 89–96. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.123.
  60. 1 2 Martin, Owen. "Quantifying CO2 savings from wind power | Biospherica". Joewheatley.net. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
  61. ↑ "New Figures Reveal Electricity Sector's Progress in Cutting CO2 Emissions". Irish Wind Energy Association. 21 April 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2017. electricity generation increased from 21,024 GWh in 2001 to 25,069 GWh in 2015, CO2 emissions associated with this electricity generation fell from a peak of 16,883 kt CO2 in 2001 to 11,922 kt CO2 in 2015.
  62. ↑ White, S. W. (2007). "Net Energy Payback and CO2 Emissions from Three Midwestern Wind Farms: An Update". Natural Resources Research. 15 (4): 271–281. doi:10.1007/s11053-007-9024-y.
  63. 1 2 "IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II I: Technology - specific cost and performance parameters" (PDF). IPCC. 2014. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
  64. 1 2 "IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II Metrics and Methodology. pg 37 to 40,41" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 September 2015.
  65. ↑ "Impact of Wind Generation in Ireland on the Operation of Conventional Plant and the Economic Implications" (PDF). ESB National Grid. February 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-05-17. Retrieved 2008-01-15.
  66. ↑ "Study of Electricity Storage Technologies and Their Potential to Address Wind Energy Intermittency in Ireland. Co-authored with Dr. Brian Ó Gallachóir" (PDF).
  67. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-19.
  68. ↑ COM/2015/082 final: "Achieving the 10% electricity interconnection target" Text PDF page 2-5. European Commission, 25 February 2015. Archive Mirror
  69. ↑ Bach, Paul F. "Enlarged Wind Power Statistics 2010", page 4. Archive
  70. ↑ "Our Wind Farms". Bord na Móna. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  71. ↑ "Study shows Ireland can be world leader in renewable energy". Department of Communications, Energy and National Resources. January 2008. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
  72. ↑ "All Island Grid Study" (PDF). Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources. January 2008. pp. 3–5, 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
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