Sustainable fishery

SeaWiFS map showing the levels of primary production in the world's oceans
Primary production required (PPR) to sustain global marine fisheries landings expressed as percentage of local primary production (PP).Estimates of PPR, PP and PPR/PP computed per 0.5° latitude/longitude ocean cells. PPR estimates based on the [www.seaaroundus.org Sea Around Us] catch database and PP estimates derived from SeaWiFS's global ocean colour satellite data. The maps represent total annual landings for 1950 (top) and 2005 (bottom). Note that PP estimates are static and derived from the synoptic observation for 1998.[1]

A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Sustainability in fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such as overexploitation and growth or recruitment overfishing, will result in the loss of significant potential yield; that stock structure will erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and their economic infrastructures will cycle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than its predecessor; and that changes will occur in the trophic balance (fishing down marine food webs).[2]

Overview

Sustainable management of fisheries cannot be achieved without an acceptance that the long-term goals of fisheries management are the same as those of environmental conservation

Daniel Pauly and Dave Preikshot, [3]

Global wild fisheries are believed to have peaked and begun a decline, with valuable habitats, such as estuaries and coral reefs, in critical condition.[4] Current aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, such as salmon, does not solve the problem because farmed piscivores are fed products from wild fish, such as forage fish. Salmon farming also has major negative impacts on wild salmon.[5][6] Fish that occupy the higher trophic levels are less efficient sources of food energy.

Fishery ecosystems are an important subset of the wider marine environment. This article documents the views of fisheries scientists and marine conservationists about innovative approaches towards sustainable fisheries.

History

In the end, we will conserve only what we love; we will love only what we understand; and we will understand only what we are taught

Senegalese conservationist Baba Dioum, [7]

In his 1883 inaugural address to the International Fisheries Exhibition in London, Thomas Huxley asserted that overfishing or "permanent exhaustion" was scientifically impossible, and stated that probably "all the great sea fisheries are inexhaustible".[8] In reality, by 1883 marine fisheries were already collapsing. The United States Fish Commission was established 12 years earlier for the purpose of finding why fisheries in New England were declining. At the time of Huxley's address, the Atlantic halibut fishery had already collapsed (and has never recovered).[9]

Traditional management of fisheries

Traditionally, fisheries management and the science underpinning it was distorted by its "narrow focus on target populations and the corresponding failure to account for ecosystem effects leading to declines of species abundance and diversity" and by perceiving the fishing industry as "the sole legitimate user, in effect the owner, of marine living resources." Historically, stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work to be providing services to the fishing industry. These scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and the science that raised the issues. This happened even as commercial fish stocks deteriorated, and even though many governments were signatories to binding conservation agreements.[3]

Defining sustainability

The notion of sustainable development is sometimes regarded as an unattainable, even illogical notion because development inevitably depletes and degrades the environment.[10]

Ray Hilborn, of the University of Washington, distinguishes three ways of defining a sustainable fishery:

  • Long term constant yield is the idea that undisturbed nature establishes a steady state that changes little over time. Properly done, fishing at up to maximum sustainable yield allows nature to adjust to a new steady state, without compromising future harvests. However, this view is naive, because constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems, which dooms this approach. Stock abundance fluctuates naturally, changing the potential yield over short and long term periods.[2]
  • Preserving intergenerational equity acknowledges natural fluctuations and regards as unsustainable only practices which damage the genetic structure destroy habitat, or deplete stock levels to the point where rebuilding requires more than a single generation. Providing rebuilding takes only one generation, overfishing may be economically foolish, but it is not unsustainable. This definition is widely accepted.[2]
  • Maintaining a biological, social and economic system considers the health of the human ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A fishery which rotates among multiple species can deplete individual stocks and still be sustainable so long as the ecosystem retains its intrinsic integrity. Such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the reduction and possible extinction of some species.[2]

Social sustainability

Fisheries and aquaculture are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, mostly in developing countries.[11]

Social sustainability can conflict with biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the society can use. Major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the flow of such products continues.[2] Humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystems, depleting or driving to extinction many species.[12]

According to Hilborn, the "loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests."[2] For example, in recent years, barndoor skates have been caught as bycatch in the western Atlantic. Their numbers have severely declined and they will probably go extinct if these catch rates continue.[13] Even if the barndoor skate goes extinct, changing the ecosystem, there could still be sustainable fishing of other commercial species.[2]

Reconciling fisheries with conservation

Management goals might consider the impact of salmon on bear and river ecosystems

At the Fourth World Fisheries Congress in 2004, Daniel Pauly asked, "How can fisheries science and conservation biology achieve a reconciliation?", then answered his own question, "By accepting each other’s essentials: that fishing should remain a viable occupation; and that aquatic ecosystems and their biodiversity are allowed to persist."[14]

A relatively new concept is relationship farming. This is a way of operating farms so they restore the food chain in their area. Re-establishing a healthy food chain can result in the farm automatically filtering out impurities from feed water and air, feeding its own food chain, and additionally producing high net yields for harvesting. An example is the large cattle ranch Veta La Palma in southern Spain. Relationship farming was first made popular by Joel Salatin who created a 220 hectare relationship farm featured prominently in Michael Pollan's book The Omnivore's Dilemma (2006) and the documentary films, Food, Inc. and Fresh. The basic concept of relationship farming is to put effort into building a healthy food chain, and then the food chain does the hard work.

Obstacles

  Large areas of the global continental shelf, highlighted in cyan, have had heavy bottom trawls repeatedly dragged over them

Overfishing

Overfishing can be sustainable. According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a misallocation of societies' resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or sustainability".[2]

Overfishing is traditionally defined as harvesting so many fish that the yield is less than it would be if fishing were reduced.[2] For example, Pacific salmon are usually managed by trying to determine how many spawning salmon, called the "escapement", are needed each generation to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. The optimum escapement is that needed to reach that surplus. If the escapement is half the optimum, then normal fishing looks like overfishing. But this is still sustainable fishing, which could continue indefinitely at its reduced stock numbers and yield. There is a wide range of escapement sizes that present no threat that the stock might collapse or that the stock structure might erode.[2]

On the other hand, overfishing can precede severe stock depletion and fishery collapse.[15] Hilborn points out that continuing to exert fishing pressure while production decreases, stock collapses and the fishery fails, is largely "the product of institutional failure."[2]

Today over 70% of fish species are either fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or recovering from depletion. If overfishing does not decrease, it is predicted that stocks of all species currently commercially fished for will collapse by 2048.[16]”

A Hubbert linearization (Hubbert curve) has been applied to the whaling industry, as well as charting the price of caviar, which depends on sturgeon stocks.[17] Another example is North Sea cod. Comparing fisheries and mineral extraction tells us that human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a Hubbert depletion cycle.[18][19]

Fishing down the food web
Coastal fishing communities in Bangladesh are vulnerable to flooding from sea-level rises.[20]
Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[21]
Shrinking of the Aral Sea

Habitat modification

Nearly all the world’s continental shelves, and large areas of continental slopes, underwater ridges, and seamounts, have had heavy bottom trawls and dredges repeatedly dragged over their surfaces. For fifty years, governments and organizations, such as the Asian Development Bank, have encouraged the fishing industry to develop trawler fleets. Repeated bottom trawling and dredging literally flattens diversity in the benthic habitat, radically changing the associated communities.[22]

Changing the ecosystem balance

Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.

Climate change

Rising ocean temperatures[23] and ocean acidification[24] are radically altering aquatic ecosystems. Climate change is modifying fish distribution[25] and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. This reduces sustainable catch levels across many habitats, puts pressure on resources needed for aquaculture, on the communities that depend on fisheries, and on the oceans' ability to capture and store carbon (biological pump). Sea level rise puts coastal fishing communities at risk, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater) fisheries and aquaculture.

Ocean pollution

A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been impacted by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff, overfishing, and other abuses.[26] Pollution is not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) mapped the impacts of stressors such as climate change, pollution, exotic species, and over-exploitation of resources on the oceans. The report shows at least 75 percent of the world's key fishing grounds may be affected.[27][28][29]

Diseases and toxins

Large predator fish contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can affect fetal development, memory, mental focus, and produce tremors.

Irrigation

Abandoned ship near Aral, Kazakhstan.

Lakes are dependent on the inflow of water from its drainage basin. In some areas, aggressive irrigation has caused this inflow to decrease significantly, causing water depletion and a shrinking of the lake. The most notable example is the Aral Sea, formerly among the four largest lakes in the world, now only a tenth of its former surface area.

Remediation

Fisheries management

Fisheries management draws on fisheries science to enable sustainable exploitation. Modern fisheries management is often defined as mandatory rules based on concrete objectives and a mix of management techniques, enforced by a monitoring control and surveillance system.[30][31][32]

  • Ideas and rules: Economist Paul Romer believes sustainable growth is possible providing the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules, rather than simply hectoring fishers. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish. He characterizes failures as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.[33][34]
  • Fishing subsidies: Government subsidies influence many of the world fisheries. Operating cost subsidies allow European and Asian fishing fleets to fish in distant waters, such as West Africa. Many experts reject fishing subsidies and advocate restructuring incentives globally to help struggling fisheries recover.[35][36]
  • Valorization of by-catch: helping to avoid discards (and their associated adverse ecological impacts) by valorizing by-catch products, as they are good sources for protein hydrolizates, peptones, enzymatic mixtures or fish oil being these products of interest different industrial sectors.[38]
  • Payment for Ecosystem Services: Environmental Economist, Essam Y Mohammed, argues that by creating direct economic incentives, whereby people are able to receive payment for the services their property provides, will help to establish sustainable fisheries around the world as well as inspire conservation where it otherwise would not.[39]
  • Sustainable fisheries certification: A promising direction is the independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea. These programs work at raising consumer awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases.
  • Ecosystem based fisheries: See next section

Ecosystem based fisheries

We propose that rebuilding ecosystems, and not sustainability per se, should be the goal of fishery management. Sustainability is a deceptive goal because human harvesting of fish leads to a progressive simplification of ecosystems in favour of smaller, high turnover, lower trophic level fish species that are adapted to withstand disturbance and habitat degradation.

Tony Pitcher and Daniel Pauly, [40]

According to marine ecologist Chris Frid, the fishing industry points to marine pollution and global warming as the causes of recent, unprecedented declines in fish populations. Frid counters that overfishing has also altered the way the ecosystem works. "Everybody would like to see the rebuilding of fish stocks and this can only be achieved if we understand all of the influences, human and natural, on fish dynamics.” He adds: “fish communities can be altered in a number of ways, for example they can decrease if particular-sized individuals of a species are targeted, as this affects predator and prey dynamics. Fishing, however, is not the sole cause of changes to marine life—pollution is another example....No one factor operates in isolation and components of the ecosystem respond differently to each individual factor."[41]

The traditional approach to fisheries science and management has been to focus on a single species. This can be contrasted with the ecosystem-based approach. Ecosystem-based fishery concepts have been implemented in some regions.[42] In a 2007 effort to "stimulate much needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science, a group of scientists offered the following ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists[43]

  • Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-adverse and adaptive.
  • Maintain an “old growth” structure in fish populations, since big, old and fat female fish have been shown to be the best spawners, but are also susceptible to overfishing.
  • Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks, so that management boundaries match natural boundaries in the sea.
  • Monitor and maintain seafloor habitats to make sure fish have food and shelter.
  • Maintain resilient ecosystems that are able to withstand occasional shocks.
  • Identify and maintain critical food-web connections, including predators and forage species.
  • Adapt to ecosystem changes through time, both short-term and on longer cycles of decades or centuries, including global climate change.
  • Account for evolutionary changes caused by fishing, which tends to remove large, older fish.
  • Include the actions of humans and their social and economic systems in all ecological equations.

Marine protected areas

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. Each nation defines MPAs independently, but they commonly involve increased protection for the area from fishing and other threats.[44]

Marine life is not evenly distributed in the oceans. Most of the really valuable ecosystems are in relatively shallow coastal waters, above or near the continental shelf, where the sunlit waters are often nutrient rich from land runoff or upwellings at the continental edge, allowing photosynthesis, which energizes the lowest trophic levels. In the 1970s, for reasons more to do with oil drilling than with fishing, the U.S. extended its jurisdiction, then 12 miles from the coast, to 200 miles. This made huge shelf areas part of its territory. Other nations followed, extending national control to what became known as the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that most of the most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate laws.

Daniel Pauly characterises marine protected areas as "a conservation tool of revolutionary importance that is being incorporated into the fisheries mainstream."[3] The Pew Charitable Trusts have funded various initiatives aimed at encouraging the development of MPAs and other ocean conservation measures.[45][46][47][48]

Fish farming

There exists concerns that farmed fish cannot produce necessary yields efficiently. For example, farmed salmon eat three pounds of wild fish to produce one pound of salmon.[49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56]

Laws and treaties

International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the 1966 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. United States laws related to marine conservation include the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National Marine Sanctuaries program. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

Awareness campaigns

Introducing the results of long term monitoring to a local fishermen in Kihnu, Estonia.

Various organizations promote sustainable fishing strategies, educate the public and stakeholders, and lobby for conservation law and policy. The list includes the Marine Conservation Biology Institute and Blue Frontier Campaign in the U.S., The U.K.'s Frontier (the Society for Environmental Exploration) and Marine Conservation Society, Australian Marine Conservation Society, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Langkawi Declaration, Oceana, PROFISH, and the Sea Around Us Project, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers, Frozen at Sea Fillets Association and CEDO.

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals include, as goal #7: target 2, the intention to "reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss", including improving fisheries management to reduce depletion of fish stocks.[57][58]

Some organizations certify fishing industry players for sustainable or good practices, such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea.

Other organizations offer advice to members of the public who eat with an eye to sustainability. According to the marine conservation biologist Callum Roberts, four criteria apply when choosing seafood:[59]

  • Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
  • Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
  • Is there a large amount of bycatch taken with the target species?
  • Does the fishery have a problem with discards—generally, undersized animals caught and thrown away because their market value is low?

The following organizations have download links for wallet-sized cards, listing good and bad choices:[60]

Data issues

Data quality

One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is inadequate data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries management decisions is poor data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on population models, but the models need quality data to be accurate. Scientists and fishery managers would be better served with simpler models and improved data.[66]

Unreported fishing

Estimates of illegal catch losses range between $10 billion and $23 billion annually, representing between 11 and 26 million tonnes.[67]

Shifting baselines

Shifting baselines is the way significant changes to a system are measured against previous baselines, which themselves may represent significant changes from the original state of the system. The term was first used by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries".[68] Pauly developed the term in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before human exploitation) and thus work with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long term decline, but it is the level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation redefines what is "natural".[69]

Looting the seas

Looting the seas is the name given by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists to a series of journalistic investigations into areas directly affecting the sustainability of fisheries. So far they have investigated three areas involving fraud, negligence and overfishing:[70]

Other factors

The focus of sustainable fishing is often on the fish. Other factors are sometimes included in the broader question of sustainability. The use of non-renewable resources is not fully sustainable. This might include diesel fuel for the fishing ships and boats: there is even a debate about the long term sustainability of biofuels. Modern fishing nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon. Synthetic braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester, polypropylene or high performance fibers such as high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and aramid.

Energy and resources are employed in fish processing, refrigeration, packaging, logistics, etc. The methodologies of Life-cycle assessment are useful to evaluate the sustainability of components and systems.[71][72] These are part of the broad question of sustainability.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Swartz, Wilf; Sala, Enric; Tracey, Sean; Watson, Reg; Pauly, Daniel (2010). "The Spatial Expansion and Ecological Footprint of Fisheries (1950 to Present)". PLOS ONE. 5 (12): e15143. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015143. PMC 2996307. PMID 21151994.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Hilborn, Ray (2005) "Are Sustainable Fisheries Achievable?" Chapter 15, pp. 247–259, in Norse and Crowder (2005).
  3. 1 2 3 4 Preikshot, Dave and Pauly, Daniel (2005) "Global Fisheries and Marine Conservation: Is Coexistence Possible?" Chapter 11, pp. 185–197, in Norse and Crowder (2005).
  4. ↑ Tietenberg, Tom (2006) Environmental and Natural Resource Economics: A Contemporary Approach. Page 28. Pearson/Addison Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-30504-6
  5. ↑ Knapp G, Roheim CA and Anderson JL (2007) The Great Salmon Run: Competition Between Wild And Farmed Salmon World Wildlife Fund. ISBN 0-89164-175-0
  6. ↑ Washington Post. Salmon Farming May Doom Wild Populations, Study Says Archived 2016-09-12 at the Wayback Machine..
  7. ↑ Norse & Crowder 2005, Page xix
  8. ↑ Huxley, Thomas (1883)Inaugural Address Archived 2011-08-29 at Wikiwix Fisheries Exhibition, London.
  9. ↑ Goode GB and Collins JW (1887) "The fresh-halibut fishery". In: The fisheries and fishery industry of the United States. Section V. History and methods of the fisheries, Vol. I, Part I. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. p. 3–89.
  10. ↑ Redclift, Michael (2005). "Sustainable development (1987-2005): An oxymoron comes of age". Sustainable Development (Submitted manuscript). 13 (4): 212–227. doi:10.1002/sd.281.
  11. ↑ Fisheries and Aquaculture in our Changing Climate Policy brief of the FAO for the UNFCCC COP-15 in Copenhagen, December 2009.
  12. ↑ Johannes R (1981) Words of the lagoon: Fishing and Marine Lore in the Palau District of Micronesia, University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03929-7
  13. ↑ Casey, J. M. (1998). "Near Extinction of a Large, Widely Distributed Fish". Science. 281 (5377): 690–692. doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.690.
  14. ↑ Pauly, Daniel (2004) Reconciling Fisheries with Conservation: the Challenge of Managing Aquatic Ecosystems Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.
  15. ↑ Ludwig, D; Hilborn, R; Walter, C (1993). "Uncertainty, resource exploitation and conservation: Lessons from history" (PDF). Science. 230: 17–26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-02.
  16. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-04-17. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
  17. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  18. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-10-28. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  19. ↑ Jacquet, Jennifer (2007). "Silent water: A brief examination of the marine fisheries crisis". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 11 (2): 255–263. doi:10.1007/s10668-007-9108-1.
  20. ↑ Sarwar G.M. (2005) "Impacts of Sea Level Rise on the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh Archived 2012-08-15 at the Wayback Machine." Masters thesis. Lund University.
  21. ↑ Coral reefs around the world Archived 2017-03-05 at the Wayback Machine. Guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009.
  22. ↑ Watling, Les (2005) "The global destruction of bottom habitats by mobile fishing gear" Archived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine. Chapter 12, pp. 198–210, in Norse and Crowder (2005).
  23. ↑ Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level Archived 2017-05-13 at the Wayback Machine. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (15MB).
  24. ↑ Doney, S. C. (2006) "The Dangers of Ocean Acidification Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine." Scientific American, March 2006.
  25. ↑ Cheung, W.W.L., et al. (2009) "Redistribution of Fish Catch by Climate Change. A Summary of a New Scientific Analysis Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine." Pew Ocean Science Series. Oct 2009.
  26. ↑ Halpern, Benjamin S.; Walbridge, Shaun; Selkoe, Kimberly A.; Kappel, Carrie V.; Micheli, Fiorenza; d'Agrosa, Caterina; Bruno, John F.; Casey, Kenneth S.; Ebert, Colin; Fox, Helen E.; Fujita, Rod; Heinemann, Dennis; Lenihan, Hunter S.; Madin, Elizabeth M. P.; Perry, Matthew T.; Selig, Elizabeth R.; Spalding, Mark; Steneck, Robert; Watson, Reg (2008). "A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems". Science. 319 (5865): 948–952. doi:10.1126/science.1149345. PMID 18276889.
  27. ↑ Census of Marine Life Archived 2008-12-02 at the Wayback Machine. — the largest oceanographic project in history.
  28. ↑ Nellemann, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. (Eds). February 2008. In Dead Water: Merging of climate change with pollution, over-harvest, and infestations in the world’s fishing grounds. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Norway. Available at "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-07-07. Retrieved 2009-09-15. Off-site Link
  29. ↑ The New York Times, 9 March 2008 Available at: "Archived copy". The New York Times. 2008-03-09. Archived from the original on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2017-09-15. Off-site Link
  30. ↑ Hilborn, Ray (2007). "Managing fisheries is managing people: What has been learned?". Fish and Fisheries. 8 (4): 285–296. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2007.00263_2.x.
  31. ↑ Pauly, Daniel (2007). "The Sea Around Us Project: Documenting and Communicating Global Fisheries Impacts on Marine Ecosystems". Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 36 (4): 290–295. doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[290:tsaupd]2.0.co;2.
  32. ↑ "The world trade organization and global fisheries sustainability". Fisheries Research. 88: 1–4. 2007. doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2007.08.017.
  33. ↑ Fish Proverb v2.0 (Bringing in Rules) Archived 2009-09-19 at the Wayback Machine. Paul Romer, 29 July 2009.
  34. ↑ Running notes from session 7 Archived 2011-08-29 at Wikiwix Paul Romer at TEDGlobal 2009.
  35. ↑ Sumaila, U. Rashid; Pauly, Daniel (2007). "All fishing nations must unite to cut subsidies". Nature. 450 (7172): 945. doi:10.1038/450945a. PMID 18075556.
  36. ↑ Clark C, Munro G and Sumaila UR (2004) Subsidies, Decommissioning Schemes and Effective Fisheries Management Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.
  37. ↑ Sumaila UR (2004) Valuation and the reconciliation of fisheries with conservation Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.
  38. ↑ Alonso, Antonio A.; Antelo, Luis T.; Otero-Muras, Irene; Pérez-Gálvez, Raúl (2010). "Contributing to fisheries sustainability by making the best possible use of their resources: The BEFAIR initiative". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 21 (11): 569–578. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2010.07.011. hdl:10261/48145.
  39. ↑ "Direct economic incentives for sustainable fisheries management: the case of Hilsa conservation in Bangladesh - Shaping Sustainable Markets". shapingsustainablemarkets.iied.org. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  40. ↑ Pitcher TJ and Pauly D (1998) "Rebuilding ecosystems, not sustainability, as the proper goal of fishery management" Archived 2013-05-13 at the Wayback Machine. Pages 311-325 in T Pitcher, D Pauly and P Hart, Reinventing Fisheries Management, Chapman & Hall.
  41. ↑ University of Liverpool (2006). "Marine Ecologists To Help Rebuild Decreasing Fish Stocks" Archived 2017-09-18 at the Wayback Machine. ScienceDaily.
  42. ↑ Christensen, Villy (2004) Using ecosystem modeling for fisheries management and marine ecosystem conservation: Where are we? Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.
  43. ↑ Francis RC, Hixon MA, Clarke ME, Murawski SA, and Ralston S (2007) Ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists Archived 2009-01-15 at the Wayback Machine. Proceedings of Coastal Zone 07, Portland, Oregon. Download Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine.
  44. ↑ Wood, L. J. (2007). MPA Global: A database of the world's marine protected areas. Archived 2009-08-14 at the Wayback Machine. Sea Around Us Project, UNEP-WCMC & WWF. Available at www.mpaglobal.org. Off-site Link MPA News, March 2008
  45. ↑ Pew, SeaWeb shrug off oil to target fishing Archived 2010-07-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved 11 October 2009.
  46. ↑ Roberts, Callum (2007) The Unnatural History of the Sea: The Past and Future of Humanity and Fishing Archived 2009-09-06 at the Wayback Machine. Island Press. ISBN 978-1-85675-294-7
  47. ↑ Protecting Sea Life: Marine Reserves Archived 2009-10-17 at the Wayback Machine. Callum Roberts. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
  48. ↑ Seas of Plenty Archived 2009-09-01 at the Wayback Machine. The Wildlife Trusts.
  49. ↑ Fish Info Network from Globefish Archived 2007-11-09 at the Wayback Machine. Globefish is the unit in the Fisheries Department of the FAO responsible for information on international fish trade.
  50. ↑ Mann, C. C. (2004). The Bluewater Revolution. Wired Magazine, 12:05, www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.05/fish.html Off-site Link
  51. ↑ Naylor, R. L.; Goldburg, R. J.; Primavera, J.; Kautsky, N.; Beveridge, M. C. M.; Clay, J.; Folke, C.; Lubchenco, J.; Mooney, H.; Troel, M. (2001). "Effects of Aquaculture on World Fish Supplies" (PDF). Issues in Ecology. 8: 1–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-11. Retrieved 2017-04-21.
  52. ↑ The Greening of the Blue Archived 2009-01-22 at the Wayback Machine. National Geographic Magazine, April 2007.
  53. ↑ Pauly, D. "Aquacalypse Now" Archived 2009-10-04 at the Wayback Machine. The New Republic, September 28, 2009.
  54. ↑ Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Archived 2009-03-29 at the Wayback Machine. Home page.
  55. ↑ Sustainable Fisheries Partnership: SFP Briefing: Sustainable Aquaculture Feeds and Wild Fisheries Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine. , 2009.
  56. ↑ Sustainable Fisheries Partnership: Press Release: Growing issue of sustainable aquaculture feeds present threats and opportunities – seafood retailers risk charge of ‘blue-washing’ Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine. September 28, 2009.
  57. ↑ Millennium Development Report 2008: Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Archived 2015-04-23 at the Wayback Machine. United Nations.
  58. ↑ Millennium Development Report 2008 Archived 2010-08-27 at the Wayback Machine. United Nations.
  59. ↑ Advice for Seafood Lovers Archived 2008-06-09 at the Wayback Machine. Callum Roberts. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
  60. ↑ Pauly, D. (2007). "The rise of consumer awareness campaigns in an era of collapsing fisheries" (PDF). Marine Policy. 31: 308–313.
  61. ↑ link Archived 2005-11-07 at the Wayback Machine.
  62. ↑ "Seafoods Archive - The Safina Center". The Safina Center. Archived from the original on 17 September 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  63. ↑ "Good Fish Guide - Marine Conservation Society". www.fishonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  64. ↑ "link". amcs.org.au. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  65. ↑ "link". panda.org.za. Archived from the original on 26 April 2010. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  66. ↑ University of Alaska Fairbanks (2007) Adkison advocates increased fisheries data gathering Archived 2007-07-11 at the Wayback Machine.
  67. ↑ UBC Fisheries Centre (2008) The Global Extent of Illegal Fishing Archived 2010-05-20 at the Wayback Machine. University of British Columbia.
  68. ↑ Pauly (1995)
  69. ↑ "The Unnatural History of the Sea". www.york.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 10 July 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  70. ↑ Looting the Seas Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. iWatch News, 17 March 2012.
  71. ↑ Pelletier, Nathan L.; Ayer, Nathan W.; Tyedmers, Peter H.; Kruse, Sarah A.; Flysjo, Anna; Robillard, Greg; Ziegler, Friederike; Scholz, Astrid J.; Sonesson, Ulf (2006). "Impact categories for life cycle assessment research of seafood production systems: Review and prospectus". The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 12 (6): 414–421. doi:10.1007/s11367-006-0275-3.
  72. ↑ Hospido, A.; Vazquez, M.E.; Cuevas, A.; Feijoo, G.; Moreira, M.T. (2006). "Environmental assessment of canned tuna manufacture with a life-cycle perspective". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 47: 56–72. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2005.10.003.

References

  • Norse, Elliott A. and Crowder, Larry B. (Eds.) (2005) Marine Conservation Biology: The Science of Maintaining the Sea's Biodiversity, Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-662-9
  • Ray, G. Carleton and McCormick-Ray, Jerry (eds). (2004). "Coastal-marine conservation: science and policy". Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
  • Marine Conservation Biology Institute (MCBI ) Bibliography of resources.
  • McLeod, Karen and Leslie. Heather (Eds.) (2009) Ecosystem-Based Management for the Oceans Island Press. ISBN 978-1-59726-155-5
  • Berkes F, Mahon R, McConney P, Pollnac R and Pomeroy R (2001) Managing Small-Scale Fisheries: Alternative Directions and Methods IDRC,. ISBN 978-0-88936-943-6
  • Mann, Kenneth and Lazier, John (3rd Ed. 2005) Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems: Biological-Physical Interactions in the Oceans Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1118-8
  • Norse EA and Crowder LB (Eds) (2005) Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-662-9
  • Duffy, J. Emmett (2008) Marine biodiversity and food security Encyclopedia of Earth. Updated 25 July 2008.
  • Worm, B.; Hilborn, R.; Baum, J. K.; Branch, T. A.; Collie, J. S.; Costello, C.; Fogarty, M. J.; Fulton, E. A.; Hutchings, J. A.; Jennings, S.; Jensen, O. P.; Lotze, H. K.; Mace, P. M.; McClanahan, T. R.; Minto, C.; Palumbi, S. R.; Parma, A. M.; Ricard, D.; Rosenberg, A. A.; Watson, R.; Zeller, D. (2009). "Rebuilding Global Fisheries". Science. 325 (5940): 578–585. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.417.4642. doi:10.1126/science.1173146. PMID 19644114.
  • Grafton, R. Quentin; Hilborn, Ray; Ridgeway, Lori; Squires, Dale; Williams, Meryl; Garcia, Serge; Groves, Theodore; Joseph, James; Kelleher, Kieran; Kompas, Tom; Libecap, Gary; Lundin, Carl Gustaf; Makino, Mitsutaku; Matthiasson, Thorolfur; McLoughlin, Richard; Parma, Ana; Martin, Gustavo San; Satia, Ben; Schmidt, Carl-Christian; Tait, Maree; Zhang, Lin Xiu (2008). "Positioning fisheries in a changing world". Marine Policy. 32 (4): 630–634. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2007.11.003.
  • Hilborn R (2008) "Knowledge on how to achieve sustainable fisheries" Pages 45–56 in K Tsukamoto, T Kawamura, T Takeuchi, TD Beard, Jr, MJ Kaiser (eds), Fisheries for Global Welfare and Environment, 5th World Fisheries Congress 2008.
  • Hughes, T.; Bellwood, D.; Folke, C.; Steneck, R.; Wilson, J. (2005). "New paradigms for supporting the resilience of marine ecosystems". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 20 (7): 380–386. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.03.022. PMID 16701400.
  • Gell, Fiona R.; Roberts, Callum M. (2003). "Benefits beyond boundaries: The fishery effects of marine reserves". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (9): 448–455. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.321.2155. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00189-7.
  • Pauly, Daniel; Christensen, Villy; Guénette, Sylvie; Pitcher, Tony J.; Sumaila, U. Rashid; Walters, Carl J.; Watson, R.; Zeller, Dirk (2002). "Towards sustainability in world fisheries". Nature. 418 (6898): 689–695. doi:10.1038/nature01017. PMID 12167876.
  • Devine, Jennifer A.; Baker, Krista D.; Haedrich, Richard L. (2006). "Deep-sea fishes qualify as endangered". Nature. 439 (7072): 29. doi:10.1038/439029a. PMID 16397489.
  • Shifting Environmental Baselines
  • "An Interview with Jennifer Jacquet: Small-scale fisheries are "best hope" for sustainability in developing world Mongabay.com, September 8, 2008.
  • Overfishing Mongabay.com.
  • Fisheries Management: 2006 Publications
  • Fisheries Management: 2007 Publications
  • Fisheries Management: 2008 Publications
  • Sustainable Fisheries MarineBio.
  • 2006-2007 Report UBC Fisheries Centre.
recent references and imbroglio
  • Banobi, Jeannette A.; Branch, Trevor A.; Hilborn, Ray (2011). "Do rebuttals affect future science?". Ecosphere. 2 (3): art37. doi:10.1890/ES10-00142.1.
  • Branch, Trevor A.; Watson, Reg; Fulton, Elizabeth A.; Jennings, Simon; McGilliard, Carey R.; Pablico, Grace T.; Ricard, Daniel; Tracey, Sean R. (2010). "The trophic fingerprint of marine fisheries". Nature. 468 (7322): 431–435. doi:10.1038/nature09528. PMID 21085178.
  • Hilborn R (2010) "Apocalypse forestalled: why all the world’s fisheries aren’t collapsing" Nature Conservancy, Science Chronicles, November 2010, pp. 5–9.
  • Pauly, Daniel (2009). "Beyond duplicity and ignorance in global fisheries". Scientia Marina. 73 (2): 215–224. doi:10.3989/scimar.2009.73n2215.
  • Pauly, Daniel; Froese, Rainer (2012). "Comments on FAO's State of Fisheries and Aquaculture, or 'SOFIA 2010'". Marine Policy. 36 (3): 746–752. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2011.10.021.
  • Sethi, S. A.; Branch, T. A.; Watson, R. (2010). "Global fishery development patterns are driven by profit but not trophic level". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (27): 12163–12167. doi:10.1073/pnas.1003236107. PMC 2901455. PMID 20566867.
  • Taylor WA, AJ Lynch and M Schechter (Eds) (2011) Sustainable Fisheries: Multi-level Approaches to a Global Problem, American Fisheries Society. ISBN 978-1-934874-21-9. Review
  • Watson R, Zeller D and Pauly D (2011) "Spatial expansion of EU and non-EU fishing fleets into the global ocean, 1950 to the present" Sea Around Us, Report commissioned by WWF Netherlands.
  • Worm, B.; Hilborn, R.; Baum, J. K.; Branch, T. A.; Collie, J. S.; Costello, C.; Fogarty, M. J.; Fulton, E. A.; Hutchings, J. A.; Jennings, S.; Jensen, O. P.; Lotze, H. K.; Mace, P. M.; McClanahan, T. R.; Minto, C.; Palumbi, S. R.; Parma, A. M.; Ricard, D.; Rosenberg, A. A.; Watson, R.; Zeller, D. (2009). "Rebuilding Global Fisheries". Science. 325 (5940): 578–585. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.417.4642. doi:10.1126/science.1173146. PMID 19644114.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.