Restoration ecology

Recently constructed wetland regeneration in Australia, on a site previously used for agriculture
Rehabilitation of a portion of Johnson Creek, to restore bioswale and flood control functions of the land which had long been converted to pasture for cow grazing. The horizontal logs can float, but are anchored by the posts. Just-planted trees will eventually stabilize the soil. The fallen trees with roots jutting into the stream are intended to enhance wildlife habitat. The meandering of the stream is enhanced here by a factor of about three times, perhaps to its original course.

Restoration ecology is the scientific study supporting the practice of ecological restoration, which is the practice of renewing and restoring degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems and habitats in the environment by active human intervention and action.

Many people recognize that biodiversity has an intrinsic value and that we have a responsibility to conserve it for future generations.[1] Natural ecosystems provide ecosystem services in the form of resources such as food, fuel, and timber; the purification of air and water; the detoxification and decomposition of wastes; the regulation of climate; the regeneration of soil fertility; and the pollination of crops. These ecosystem processes have been estimated to be worth trillions of dollars annually.[2][1] There is consensus in the scientific community that the current environmental degradation and destruction of many of the Earth's biota is taking place on a "catastrophically short timescale".[3] Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate, or the rate of the Holocene extinction, is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate.[4][5][6]Habitat loss is the leading cause of both species extinctions[6] and ecosystem service decline.[2] Two methods have been identified to slow the rate of species extinction and ecosystem service decline, they are the conservation of currently viable habitat, and the restoration of degraded habitat. The commercial applications of ecological restoration have increased exponentially in recent years.[7]

Definition

Restoration ecology is the academic study of the process, whereas ecological restoration is the actual project or process by restoration practitioners. The Society for Ecological Restoration defines "ecological restoration" as an "intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability".[8] Ecological restoration includes a wide scope of projects including erosion control, reforestation, removal of non-native species and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas, daylighting streams, reintroduction of native species (preferably native species that have local adaptation), and habitat and range improvement for targeted species.

E. O. Wilson, a biologist, states, "Here is the means to end the great extinction spasm. The next century will, I believe, be the era of restoration in ecology."[9]

History of restoration ecology

Restoration ecology emerged as a separate field in ecology in the late twentieth century. "Restoration ecology" was not first formally identified as a distinct scientific field until the late twentieth century. The term was coined by John Aber and William Jordan III when they were at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.[10] However, indigenous peoples, land managers, stewards, and laypeople have been practicing ecological restoration or ecological management for thousands of years.[11]

Considered the birthplace of modern ecological restoration, the first tallgrass prairie restoration was the 1936 Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.[12][10] Civilian Conservation Corps workers replanted nearby prairie species onto a former horse pasture, overseen by university faculty including renowned ecologist Aldo Leopold, botanist Theodore Sperry, mycologist Henry C. Greene, and plant ecologist John T. Curtis. Curtis and his graduate students surveyed the whole of Wisconsin, documenting native species communities and creating the first species lists for tallgrass restorations.[13] Existing prairie remnants, such as locations within pioneer cemeteries and railroad rights-of-way, were located and inventoried by Curtis and his team. The UW Arboretum was the center of tallgrass prairie research through the first half of the 20th century, with the development of the nearby Greene Prairie, Aldo Leopold Shack and Farm, and pioneering techniques like prescribed burning.[12]

The latter-half of the 20th century saw the growth of ecological restoration beyond Wisconsin borders. The 285-hectare Green Oaks Biological Field Station at Knox College began in 1955 under the guidance of zoologist Paul Shepard. It was followed by the 40-hectare Schulenberg Prairie at the Morton Arboretum, started in 1962 by Ray Schulenberg and Bob Betz. Betz then worked with The Nature Conservancy to establish the 260-hectare Fermi National Laboratory tallgrass prairie in 1974.[14] These major tallgrass restoration projects marked the growth of ecological restoration from isolated studies to widespread practice.

Theoretical foundations of restoration ecology

Restoration ecology draws on a wide range of ecological concepts.

Disturbance

Disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that disrupts the functioning of an ecosystem. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and is a natural component of many communities.[15] For example, many forest and grassland restorations implement fire as a natural disturbance regime. However the severity and scope of anthropogenic impact has grown in the last few centuries. Differentiating between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances is important if we are to understand how to restore natural processes and minimize anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystems.

Succession

Ecological succession is the process by which a community changes over time, especially following a disturbance. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant pioneer species to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species. Restoration often consists of initiating, assisting, or accelerating ecological successional processes, depending on the severity of the disturbance.[16] Following mild to moderate natural and anthropogenic disturbances, restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional trajectories. However, in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance (i.e. physical or chemical alteration of the environment), restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that favor natural successional processes.

Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation describes spatial discontinuities in a biological system, where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land use changes (e.g. agriculture) and natural disturbance. This both reduces the size of the populations and increases the degree of isolation. These smaller and isolated populations are more vulnerable to extinction. Fragmenting ecosystems decreases quality of the habitat. The edge of a fragment has a different range of environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than the interior. Restorative projects can increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease isolation by creating habitat corridors that link isolated fragments. Reversing the effects of fragmentation is an important component of restoration ecology.[17]

Ecosystem function

Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems, including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes. An understanding of the complexity of these ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded. Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of the system as a whole, thus monitoring and management are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems.A fully functional ecosystem that is completely self-perpetuating is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts.

Community assembly

Community assembly "is a framework that can unify virtually all of (community) ecology under a single conceptual umbrella".[18] Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species. It assumes that species have similar niche requirements, so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common species pool.[19] Essentially, if all species are fairly ecologically equivalent, then random variation in colonization, and migration and extinction rates between species, drive differences in species composition between sites with comparable environmental conditions.

Population genetics

Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes.[20] Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include founder effects, inbreeding depression, outbreeding depression, genetic drift, and gene flow. Such processes can predict whether or not a species successfully establishes at a restoration site.[21][22]

Applications of restoration ecology

Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity

Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition, diversity, and assembly trajectory. Baer et al. (2005) manipulated soil resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass prairie restoration project. They found increasing resource heterogeneity, which on its own was insufficient to insure species diversity in situations where one species may dominate across the range of resource levels. Their findings were consistent with the theory regarding the role of ecological filters on community assembly. The establishment of a single species, best adapted to the physical and biological conditions can play an inordinately important role in determining the community structure.[23]

Invasion and restoration

Restoration is used as a tool for reducing the spread of invasive plant species in a number of ways. The first method views restoration primarily as a means to reduce the presence of invasive species and limit their spread. As this approach emphasizes control of invaders, the restoration techniques can differ from typical restoration projects.[24][25] The goal of such projects is not necessarily to restore an entire ecosystem or habitat.[26] These projects frequently use lower diversity mixes of aggressive native species seeded at high density.[27] They are not always actively managed following seeding.[28] The target areas for this type of restoration are those which are heavily dominated by invasive species. The goals are to first remove the species and then in so doing, reduce the number of invasive seeds being spread to surrounding areas. This approach has been shown to be effective in reducing weeds, although it is not always a sustainable solution long term without additional weed control, such as mowing, or re-seeding.[25][28][29][30]

Restoration projects are also used as a way to better understand what makes an ecological community resistant to invasion. As restoration projects have a broad range of implementation strategies and methods used to control invasive species, they can be used by ecologists to test theories about invasion.[28] Restoration projects have been used to understand how the diversity of the species introduced in the restoration affects invasion. We know that generally higher diversity prairies have lower levels of invasion.[31] Incorporation of functional ecology has shown that more functionally diverse restorations have lower levels of invasion.[32] Furthermore, studies have shown that using native species functionally similar to invasive species are better able to compete with invasive species.[33][34] Restoration ecologists have also used the variety of strategies employed at different restoration sites to better understand the most successful management techniques to control invasion.[35]

Successional trajectories

Progress along a desired successional pathway may be difficult if multiple stable states exist. Looking over 40 years of wetland restoration data, Klötzli and Gootjans (2001) argue that unexpected and undesired vegetation assemblies "may indicate that environmental conditions are not suitable for target communities".[36] Succession may move in unpredicted directions, but constricting environmental conditions within a narrow range may rein in the possible successional trajectories and increase the likelihood of a desired outcome.

Sourcing material for restoration

For most restoration projects it is generally recommend to source material from local populations, to increase chance of restoration success and minimize the effects of maladaptation.[37] However the definition of local can vary based on species. habitat and region.[38] US Forest Service recently developed provisional seed zones based on a combination of minimum winter temperature zones, aridity, and the Level III ecoregions.[39] Rather than putting strict distance recommendations, other guidelines recommend sourcing seeds to match similar environmental conditions. For example, sourcing for Castilleja levisecta found that farther source populations that matched similar environmental variables were better suited for the restoration project than closer source populations.[40]

Principles of ecological restoration

Ecosystem restoration for the superb parrot on an abandoned railway line in Australia

Rationale

There are many reasons to restore ecosystems. Some include:

Buffelsdraai Community Reforestation Project.
Forest restoration in action at the Buffelsdraai Landfill Site Community Reforestation Project in South Africa

There exist considerable differences of opinion in how to set restoration goals and how to define their success among conservation groups. Some urge active restoration (e.g. eradicating invasive animals to allow the native ones to survive) and others who believe that protected areas should have the bare minimum of human interference, such as rewilding. Ecosystem restoration has generated controversy. Skeptics doubt that the benefits justify the economic investment or who point to failed restoration projects and question the feasibility of restoration altogether. It can be difficult to set restoration goals, in part because, as Anthony Bradshaw claims, "ecosystems are not static, but in a state of dynamic equilibrium…. [with restoration] we aim [for a] moving target."

Some conservationists argue that, though an ecosystem may not be returned to its original state, the functions of the ecosystem (especially ones that provide services to us) may be more valuable than its current configuration (Bradshaw 1987). One reason to consider ecosystem restoration is to mitigate climate change through activities such as afforestation. Afforestation involves replanting forests, which remove carbon dioxide from the air. Carbon dioxide is a leading cause of global warming (Speth, 2005) and capturing it would help alleviate climate change. Another example of a common driver of restoration projects in the United States is the legal framework of the Clean Water Act, which often requires mitigation for damage inflicted on aquatic systems by development or other activities.[43]

Restored prairie at the West Eugene Wetlands in Eugene, Oregon.

Ecological restoration challenges

Some view ecosystem restoration as impractical, partially because restorations often fall short of their goals. Hilderbrand et al. point out that many times uncertainty (about ecosystem functions, species relationships, and such) is not addressed, and that the time-scales set out for 'complete' restoration are unreasonably short, while other critical markers for full-scale restoration are either ignored or abridged due to feasibility concerns.[44] In other instances an ecosystem may be so degraded that abandonment (allowing a severely degraded ecosystem to recover on its own) may be the wisest option.[45] Local communities sometimes object to restorations that include the introduction of large predators or plants that require disturbance regimes such as regular fires, citing threat to human habitation in the area.[46] High economic costs can also be perceived as a negative impact of the restoration process.

Public opinion is very important in the feasibility of a restoration; if the public believes that the costs of restoration outweigh the benefits they will not support it.[46]

Many failures have occurred in past restoration projects, many times because clear goals were not set out as the aim of the restoration, or an incomplete understanding of the underlying ecological framework lead to insufficient measures. This may be because, as Peter Alpert says, "people may not [always] know how to manage natural systems effectively".[47] Furthermore, many assumptions are made about myths of restoration such as carbon copy, where a restoration plan, which worked in one area, is applied to another with the same results expected, but not realized.[44]

Science-practice gap

One of the struggles for both fields is a divide between restoration ecology and ecological restoration in practice. Currently, many restoration practitioners as well as scientists feel that science is not being adequately incorporated into ecological restoration projects.[48][49][50][51] In a 2009 survey of practitioners and scientists, the "science-practice gap" was listed as the second most commonly cited reason limiting the growth of both science and practice of restoration.

There are a variety of theories about the cause of this gap. However, it has been well established that one of the main issues is that the questions studied by restoration ecologists are frequently not found useful or easily applicable by land managers.[48][52] For instance, many publications in restoration ecology characterize the scope of a problem in depth, without providing concrete solutions.[52] Additionally many restoration ecology studies are carried out under controlled conditions and frequently at scales much smaller than actual restorations.[28] Whether or not these patterns hold true in an applied context is often unknown. There is evidence that these small-scale experiments inflate type II error rates and differ from ecological patterns in actual restorations.[53][54]

There is further complication in that restoration ecologists who want to collect large-scale data on restoration projects can face enormous hurdles in obtaining the data. Managers vary in how much data they collect, and how many records they keep. Some agencies keep only a handful of physical copies of data that make it difficult for the researcher to access.[55] Many restoration projects are limited by time and money, so data collection and record keeping are not always feasible.[49] However, this limits the ability of scientists to analyze restoration projects and give recommendations based on empirical data.

Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology

Restoration ecology may be viewed as a sub-discipline of conservation biology, the scientific study of how to protect and restore biodiversity. Ecological restoration is then a part of the resulting conservation movement.

Both restoration ecologists and conservation biologists agree that protecting and restoring habitat is important for protecting biodiversity. However, conservation biology is primarily rooted in population biology. Because of that, it is generally organized at the population genetic level and assesses specific species populations (i.e. endangered species). Restoration ecology is organized at the community level, which focuses on broader groups within ecosystems.[56]

In addition, conservation biology often concentrates on vertebrate animals because of their salience and popularity, whereas restoration ecology concentrates on plants. Restoration ecology focuses on plants because restoration projects typically begin by establishing plant communities. Ecological restoration, despite being focused on plants, may also have "poster species" for individual ecosystems and restoration projects.[56] For example, the Monarch butterfly is a poster species for conserving and restoring milkweed plant habitat, because Monarch butterflies require milkweed plants to reproduce. Finally, restoration ecology has a stronger focus on soils, soil structure, fungi, and microorganisms because soils provide the foundation of functional terrestrial ecosystems.[57][58]

Natural Capital Committee's recommendation for a 25-year plan

The UK Natural Capital Committee (NCC) made a recommendation in its second State of Natural Capital report published in March 2014 that in order to meet the Government's goal of being the first generation to leave the environment in a better state than it was inherited, a long-term 25-year plan was needed to maintain and improve England's natural capital. The UK Government has not yet responded to this recommendation.

The Secretary of State for the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Owen Paterson, described his ambition for the natural environment and how the work of the Committee fits into this at an NCC event in November 2012: "I do not, however, just want to maintain our natural assets; I want to improve them. I want us to derive the greatest possible benefit from them, while ensuring that they are available for generations to come. This is what the NCC's innovative work is geared towards".[59]

  • Restoration Ecology, journal of the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER)[60]
  • Ecological Management & Restoration, published by the Ecological Society of Australia (ESA)[61]
  • Ecological Restoration, published by the University of Wisconsin Press [62]

See also

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 Costanza, Robert; d'Arge, Ralph; de Groot, Rudolf; Farber, Stephen; Grasso, Monica; Hannon, Bruce; Limburg, Karin; Naeem, Shahid; O'Neill, Robert V. (May 1997). "The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital". Nature. 387 (6630): 253–260. doi:10.1038/387253a0. ISSN 0028-0836.
  2. 1 2 Daily, Gretchen C. (1997). "Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems" (PDF). Issues in Ecology.
  3. ↑ Novacek, Michael J.; Cleland, Elsa E. (2001-05-08). "The current biodiversity extinction event: Scenarios for mitigation and recovery". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (10): 5466–5470. doi:10.1073/pnas.091093698. PMC 33235. PMID 11344295.
  4. ↑ Pimm, Stuart L.; Russell, Gareth J.; Gittleman, John L.; Brooks, Thomas M. (1995-07-21). "The Future of Biodiversity". Science. 269 (5222): 347–350. doi:10.1126/science.269.5222.347. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17841251.
  5. ↑ Simberloff, Daniel (January 1996). "Lawton, J. H. and May, R. M. (Eds.). Extinction Rates. 1995. Oxford University Press, Oxford. xii + 233 pp. ISBN 0-19-854829. X. Price: f17.95". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 9 (1): 124–126. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1996.t01-1-9010124.x. ISSN 1010-061X.
  6. 1 2 Sciences, National Academy of (1988-01-01). "Biodiversity". doi:10.17226/989.
  7. ↑ Young, T. P.; Petersen, D. A.; Clary, J. J. (2005-04-28). "The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms". Ecology Letters. 8 (6): 662–673. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00764.x. ISSN 1461-023X.
  8. ↑ Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group (2004). "The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration" (PDF). www.ser.org & Tucson: Society for Ecological Restoration International.
  9. ↑ O., Wilson, Edward (2010, ©1992). The diversity of life (1st Harvard University Press paperback ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674058170. OCLC 691398594. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. 1 2 Jordan, III, W. R. (2011). Making nature whole : a history of ecological restoration. Washington, DC: Island Press. ISBN 9781610910422. OCLC 750183084.
  11. ↑ Anderson, K. (2005). Tending the wild: Native American knowledge and the management of California's natural resources. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520238567. OCLC 56103978.
  12. 1 2 Court, F. E. (2012). Pioneers of ecological restoration : the people and legacy of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299286630. OCLC 814694131.
  13. ↑ Curtis, J. T. (1971). The vegetation of Wisconsin : an ordination of plant communities. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299019433. OCLC 811410421.
  14. ↑ "Fermilab History & Archives Project: Natural History - Prairie". fnal.gov. Fermilab. Retrieved 2018-08-21.
  15. ↑ "Chapter 17: Disturbance, Succession, and Community Assembly in Terrestrial Plant Communities". Assembly rules and restoration ecology : bridging the gap between theory and practice. Temperton, Vicky M. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. 2004. ISBN 9781429495134. OCLC 173134455.
  16. ↑ 1955-, Luken, James O., (1990). Directing ecological succession (1st ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. ISBN 0412344505. OCLC 21376331.
  17. ↑ "Targeted habitat restoration can reduced extinction rates in fragrmented forests". National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  18. ↑ 1936-, Douglas, Ian,. Urban ecology : an introduction. James, Philip (Professor of ecology),. New York, NY. ISBN 9781136266966. OCLC 894509632.
  19. ↑ Young, Truman P.; Chase, Jonathan M.; Huddleston, Russell T. (2001). "Community Succession and Assembly: Comparing, Contrasting and Combining Paradigms in the Context of Ecological Restoration". Ecological Restoration. 19 (1): 5–18. JSTOR 43440887.
  20. ↑ Hughes, A. Randall; Inouye, Brian D.; Johnson, Marc T. J.; Underwood, Nora; Vellend, Mark (2008-04-08). "Ecological consequences of genetic diversity". Ecology Letters. 11 (6): 609–623. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01179.x. ISSN 1461-023X.
  21. ↑ Montalvo, Arlee M.; Rice, Susan L. Williams; Buchmann, Stephen L.; Cory, Coleen; Handel, Steven N.; Nabhan, Gary P.; Robichaux, Robert H. (December 1997). "Restoration Biolog y: A Population Biolog y Perspective". Restoration Ecology. 5 (4): 277–290. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100x.1997.00542.x. ISSN 1061-2971.
  22. ↑ Crutsinger, Gregory M.; Collins, Michael D.; Fordyce, James A.; Gompert, Zachariah; Nice, Chris C.; Sanders, Nathan J. (2006-08-18). "Plant Genotypic Diversity Predicts Community Structure and Governs an Ecosystem Process". Science. 313 (5789): 966–968. doi:10.1126/science.1128326. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16917062.
  23. ↑ Baer, Sara G.; Collins, Scott L; Blair, John M.; Knapp, Alan K.; Fiedler, Anna K. (2005-06). "Soil Heterogeneity Effects on Tallgrass Prairie Community Heterogeneity: An Application of Ecological Theory to Restoration Ecology". Restoration Ecology. 13 (2): 413–424. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2005.00051.x. ISSN 1061-2971. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ↑ Epanchin-Niell, Rebecca; Englin, Jeffrey; Nalle, Darek (November 2009). "Investing in rangeland restoration in the Arid West, USA: Countering the effects of an invasive weed on the long-term fire cycle". Journal of Environmental Management. 91 (2): 370–379. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.09.004.
  25. 1 2 Török, Péter; Miglécz, Tamás; Valkó, Orsolya; Kelemen, András; Deák, Balázs; Lengyel, Szabolcs; Tóthmérész, Béla (January 2012). "Recovery of native grass biodiversity by sowing on former croplands: Is weed suppression a feasible goal for grassland restoration?". Journal for Nature Conservation. 20 (1): 41–48. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2011.07.006.
  26. ↑ Brown, Ray; Amacher, Michael (1999). "Selecting Plant Species for Ecological Restoration: a Perspective for Land Managers" (PDF). USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-05-05.
  27. ↑ Wilson, Rob G.; Orloff, Steve B.; Lancaster, Donald L.; Kirby, Donald W.; Carlson, Harry L. (2010). "Integrating Herbicide Use and Perennial Grass Revegetation to Suppress Weeds in Noncrop Areas". Invasive Plant Science and Management. 3 (1): 81–92. doi:10.1614/ipsm-09-008.1. ISSN 1939-7291.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Kettenring, Karin M.; Adams, Carrie Reinhardt (2011-08-01). "Lessons learned from invasive plant control experiments: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Applied Ecology. 48 (4): 970–979. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01979.x. ISSN 1365-2664.
  29. ↑ Dana, Blumenthal,; Nicholas, Jordan,; Elizabeth, Svenson, (2003-03-06). "Weed Control as a Rationale for Restoration: The Example of Tallgrass Prairie". Conservation Ecology. 7 (1). doi:10.5751/ES-00480-070106. ISSN 1195-5449.
  30. ↑ Blumenthal, Dana M.; Jordan, Nicholas R.; Svenson, Elizabeth L. (2005-05-20). "Effects of prairie restoration on weed invasions". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 107 (2–3): 221–230. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.11.008.
  31. ↑ Montoya, Daniel; Rogers, Lucy; Memmott, Jane (2012-12-01). "Emerging perspectives in the restoration of biodiversity-based ecosystem services". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 27 (12): 666–672. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2012.07.004.
  32. ↑ Pokorny, Monica L.; Sheley, Roger L.; Zabinski, Catherine A.; Engel, Richard E.; Svejcar, Tony J.; Borkowski, John J. (2005-09-01). "Plant Functional Group Diversity as a Mechanism for Invasion Resistance". Restoration Ecology. 13 (3): 448–459. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2005.00056.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  33. ↑ Cleland, Elsa E.; Larios, Loralee; Suding, Katharine N. (2013-05-01). "Strengthening Invasion Filters to Reassemble Native Plant Communities: Soil Resources and Phenological Overlap". Restoration Ecology. 21 (3): 390–398. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2012.00896.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  34. ↑ Firn, Jennifer; MacDougall, Andrew S.; Schmidt, Susanne; Buckley, Yvonne M. (2010-07-01). "Early emergence and resource availability can competitively favour natives over a functionally similar invader". Oecologia. 163 (3): 775–784. doi:10.1007/s00442-010-1583-7. ISSN 0029-8549.
  35. ↑ Rowe, Helen I. (2010-11-01). "Tricks of the Trade: Techniques and Opinions from 38 Experts in Tallgrass Prairie Restoration". Restoration Ecology. 18: 253–262. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00663.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  36. ↑ Klotzli, Frank; Grootjans, Ab P. (2001-06). "Restoration of Natural and Semi-Natural Wetland Systems in Central Europe: Progress and Predictability of Developments". Restoration Ecology. 9 (2): 209–219. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100x.2001.009002209.x. ISSN 1061-2971. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ↑ Breed, Martin F.; Stead, Michael G.; Ottewell, Kym M.; Gardner, Michael G.; Lowe, Andrew J. (2013-02-01). "Which provenance and where? Seed sourcing strategies for revegetation in a changing environment". Conservation Genetics. 14 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1007/s10592-012-0425-z. ISSN 1566-0621.
  38. ↑ McKay, John K.; Christian, Caroline E.; Harrison, Susan; Rice, Kevin J. (2005). ""How Local Is Local?"-A Review of Practical and Conceptual Issues in the Genetics of Restoration". Restoration Ecology. 13 (3): 432–440. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2005.00058.x. ISSN 1061-2971.
  39. ↑ Bower, Andrew D.; Clair, J. Bradley St.; Erickson, Vicky (2014-07-01). "Generalized provisional seed zones for native plants". Ecological Applications. 24 (5): 913–919. doi:10.1890/13-0285.1. ISSN 1939-5582.
  40. ↑ Lawrence, Beth A.; Kaye, Thomas N. (2011-03-01). "Reintroduction of Castilleja levisecta: Effects of Ecological Similarity, Source Population Genetics, and Habitat Quality". Restoration Ecology. 19 (2): 166–176. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2009.00549.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  41. ↑ Silva, S., Lowry, M., Macaya-Solis, C., Byatt, B., & Lucas, M. C. (2017). Can navigation locks be used to help migratory fishes with poor swimming performance pass tidal barrages? A test with lampreys. Ecological engineering, 102, 291-302
  42. ↑ Harris JA, Hobbs RJ, Higgs ES, and Aronson JA. (2006). "Ecological restoration and climate change". Restoration Ecology. 14: 170–76. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2006.00136.x.
  43. ↑ "Compensatory Mitigation Methods". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved June 4, 2018.
  44. 1 2 Hilderbrand, R. H., A. C. Watts, and A. M. Randle 2005. The myths of restoration ecology. Ecology and Society 10(1): 19. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss1/art19/
  45. ↑ HOLL, KAREN D.; HAYES, GREY F. (2006-02-27). "Challenges to Introducing and Managing Disturbance Regimes for Holocarpha macradenia, an Endangered Annual Grassland Forb". Conservation Biology. 20 (4): 1121–1131. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00416.x. ISSN 0888-8892.
  46. 1 2 Macdonald, David (2002). "The ecological context: a species population perspective". Handbook of ecological restoration. 1: 47–65.
  47. ↑ Alpert, P. 2002. Managing the wild: should stewards be pilots? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9(2): 494-499.
  48. 1 2 Dickens, Sara Jo M.; Suding, Katharine N. (2013-06-01). "Spanning the Science-Practice Divide: Why Restoration Scientists Need to be More Involved with Practice". Ecological Restoration. 31 (2): 134–140. doi:10.3368/er.31.2.134. ISSN 1522-4740.
  49. 1 2 Cabin, Robert J.; Clewell, Andre; Ingram, Mrill; McDonald, Tein; Temperton, Vicky (2010-11-01). "Bridging Restoration Science and Practice: Results and Analysis of a Survey from the 2009 Society for Ecological Restoration International Meeting". Restoration Ecology. 18 (6): 783–788. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2010.00743.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  50. ↑ David, Erica; Dixon, Kingsley W.; Menz, Myles H. M. (2016-05-01). "Cooperative Extension: A Model of Science–Practice Integration for Ecosystem Restoration". Trends in Plant Science. 21 (5): 410–417. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2016.01.001. ISSN 1360-1385.
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  52. 1 2 Cabin, Robert J. (2007-03-01). "Science-Driven Restoration: A Square Grid on a Round Earth?". Restoration Ecology. 15 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2006.00183.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  53. ↑ Duc, M. G. Le; Pakeman, R. J.; Marrs, R. H. (2003-06-01). "Changes in the rhizome system of bracken subjected to long-term experimental treatment". Journal of Applied Ecology. 40 (3): 508–522. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00818.x. ISSN 1365-2664.
  54. ↑ Erskine Ogden, Jennifer A.; Rejmánek, Marcel (October 2005). "Recovery of native plant communities after the control of a dominant invasive plant species, Foeniculum vulgare: Implications for management". Biological Conservation. 125 (4): 427–439. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.03.025.
  55. ↑ Bernhardt, Emily S.; Sudduth, Elizabeth B.; Palmer, Margaret A.; Allan, J. David; Meyer, Judy L.; Alexander, Gretchen; Follastad-Shah, Jennifer; Hassett, Brooke; Jenkinson, Robin (2007-09-01). "Restoring Rivers One Reach at a Time: Results from a Survey of U.S. River Restoration Practitioners". Restoration Ecology. 15 (3): 482–493. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2007.00244.x. ISSN 1526-100X.
  56. 1 2 Young, Truman P (2000-01). "Restoration ecology and conservation biology". Biological Conservation. 92 (1): 73–83. doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(99)00057-9. ISSN 0006-3207. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  57. ↑ Allen, Craig D (2002). "Ecological restoration of southwestern Ponderosa pine ecosystems: A broad perspective". Ecological Applications. 12 (5): 1418–1433. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2002)012[1418:EROSPP]2.0.CO;2.
  58. ↑ Harris, J. A. (2003-12). "Measurements of the soil microbial community for estimating the success of restoration". European Journal of Soil Science. 54 (4): 801–808. doi:10.1046/j.1351-0754.2003.0559.x. ISSN 1351-0754. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  59. ↑ Paterson, Owen (27 November 2012). "Owen Paterson's speech to Royal Society on Natural Capital Committee". gov.uk. Retrieved June 4, 2018.
  60. ↑ "Restoration Ecology", SER. Accessed: September 14, 2015.
  61. ↑ "Ecological Management & Restoration", John Wiley & Sons. Accessed: September 14, 2015.
  62. ↑ "Ecological Restoration", University of Wisconsin Press. Accessed: September 14, 2015.

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