List of drugs by year of discovery

The following is a table with drugs organized by year of discovery and begins with firs drugs formed in the universe; Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium that were formed during the first three minutes after the Big Bang, bigger elements and molecules were formed by stellar nucleosynthesis and other forms of nucleosynthesis thousands and millions of years after the Big Bang, such as water, sodium chloride, after it, more complex molecules were formed and evolved into self-replicating molecules.

Around 4 billion years ago, self-replicating molecules evolved into DNA, RNA, viruses and the first species of life on Earth that we now group in six kingdoms, these are (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaeabacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria).

Since its beginning, life on Earth has become automatic producers of millions of complex molecules in the lifetime of every organism using a process called catabolism, where life beings use single elements or small molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc) and sunlight as source of energy to produce bigger molecules, including vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, alkaloids, glycosides, hormones, and enzymes. Another process called anabolism use big molecules for their inner biochemical processes producing smaller molecules such oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and releasing energy that is used as source of energy for its cells, organs or brain. All kind of life on Earth have being producers but also consumer of molecules and macromolecules and interchanged them with other forms of life, and at the same time helped and formed part of their evolution. Since 19th century mankind begins to develop new drugs that does not existed on nature before but instead were synthesized in laboratories by combination of organic and inorganic molecules. In 21st century genome editing aims to improve health and cure patients not with the use of drugs but with the edition of human genome.

60th millennium BC

Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of medicinal plants dates back to the Paleolithic age, these traditions was shared and transmitted by shamans since approximately 60,000 years ago.

4th millennium BC

In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs.^[1] Medical recipes from 4000 BC were for liquid preparations rather than solids.^[2] In 4th millennium BC is named Soma (drink) and Haoma but is not clear what were the ingredients to prepare them.

3rd millennium BC

Discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
2,700 BC	Rhubarb	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
2,700 BC	Mandragora officinarum	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
2,700 BC	Cannabis sativa	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A

2nd millennium BC

Around 1600 BC was written Edwin Smith Papyrus, it describes the use of many herbal drugs, around 1550 BC was written the most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus, it covers more than 700 drugs, mainly of plant origin.^[3] The first references to pills were found on papyruses in ancient Egypt, and contained bread dough, honey or grease. Medicinal ingredients, such as plant powders or spices, were mixed in and formed by hand to make little balls, or pills.,^[2] the papyri also describes how to prepare herbal teas, poultices, ointments, eye drops, suppositories, enemas, laxatives, etc.

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
2nd millennium BC	Aloe vera^[4]		N/A		N/A

1st millennium BC

In Greece Theophrastus of Eresos wrote in the 4th c. B.C. Historia Plantarum^[5] Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty^[6] (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC). Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, an early Chinese medical text, are herbs.^[7] Herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet.^[8]

A sample of raw opium

Opioids are among the world's oldest known drugs.^[9]^[10] Use of the opium poppy for medical, recreational, and religious purposes can be traced to the 4th century B.C., when Hippocrates wrote about it for its analgesic properties, stating, "Divinum opus est sedare dolores."^[11]

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Discoverer
1st millennium BC	Hyoscyamus niger
600 B.C.	Glycerol, produced	Phoenicians
300 B.C.	Opium	Used as analgesic by Hippocrates

1st millennium

1st Century

In ancient Greece, pills were known as katapotia ("something to be swallowed"). Pliny the Elder, who lived from 23-79 AD, first gave a name to what we now call pills, calling them pilula.,^[2] he also wrote Naturalis Historia a collecion of 38 books and the first pharmacopea.

Pedanius Dioscorides wrote De Materia Medica (c. 40 – 90 AD), this book dominated the area of drug knowledge for some 1500 years until the 1600s.^[12]

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
1st millennium	Jojoba		N/A		N/A

2nd Century

Aelius Galenus wrote more than 11 books about drugs, also use terra sigillata with kaolinite and goats blood to produce tablets.

6th Century

In 754, during Abbasid Caliphate were formed the first pharmacies in Baghdad.

2nd millennium

In middle age ointments were a common dosage form

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
10th century	Coffee		N/A		N/A

11th Century

Avicenna separates Medicine and Pharmacy, in 1025 published his book The Canon of Medicine, an encyclopedia of medicine formed by five books.

16th Century

Paracelsus expounded the concept of dose response in his Third Defense, where he stated that "Solely the dose determines that a thing is not a poison." This was used to defend his use of inorganic substances in medicine as outsiders frequently criticized Paracelsus' chemical agents as too toxic to be used as therapeutic agents. Paracelsus discovered that the alkaloids in opium are far more soluble in alcohol than water. Having experimented with various opium concoctions, Paracelsus came across a specific tincture of opium that was of considerable use in reducing pain. He called this preparation laudanum.

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
16th century	Laudanum		N/A		N/A

18th Century

In 1778 John Mudge created the first inhaler devices. In 1747, James Lind, surgeon of HMS Salisbury, conducted the first clinical trial ever recorded, on it he study how citrus fruit were capable of cure scurvy.

19th Century

In 1830's chemist Justus von Liebig begin the synthesis of organic molecules, stating that "The production of all organic substances no longer belongs just to living organisms." In 1832 produced chloral hydrate, the first synthetic sleeping drug. In 1833 French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase. In 1834, François Mothes and Joseph Dublanc created a method to produce a single-piece gelatin capsule that was sealed with a drop of gelatin solution. In 1853 Alexander Wood was the first physician that used hypodermic needle to dispense drugs via Injections. In 1858 Dr. M. Sales Giron invented the first pressurized inhaler.

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Patented expired
1804	Morphine	Gates synthesis, 1952^[13]	N/A	N/A
1820	Quinine (isolation)	Woodward and Doering, 1944	N/A	N/A
1832	Chloral hydrate	Justus von Liebig, 1832
1833	Diastase		N/A	N/A
1875	Phenylhydrazine	Hermann Emil Fischer, 1875	1875	N/A
1877	Paracetamol	Harmon Northrop Morse, 1877	1950	2007
1877	Mannitol	Julije Domac, 1877	1950
1880	Phenazone, "the mother of modern Antipyretics"	Ludwig Knorr, 1880	1880	N/A
1885	Ephedrine	Nagai Nagayoshi, 1885	1885	N/A
1890	Benzocaine	August Bischler, 1895	1895	N/A
1895	Quinazoline	August Bischler, 1895	1895	N/A

20th Century

In 1901 Jokichi Takamine isolated and synthesized the first hormone, Adrenaline. In 1907 Alfred Bertheim synthesized Arsphenamine, the first antibiotic made by men. In 1927 Erik Rotheim patented the first aerosol spray can. In 1933 Robert Pauli Scherer created a method to develop softgels.

William Roberts studies about penicillin were continued by Alexander Fleming, whom in 1928 concluded that penicillin had an antibiotic effect. In 1944 Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain mass-produced penicilin. In 1948 Raymond P. Ahlquist published his seminal work where divided adrenoceptors into α- and β-adrenoceptor subtypes, this allowed a better understanding of drugs mechanisms of action.

In 1987, after Montreal Protocol, CFC inhalers were phased out and HFA inhalers replace them. In 1987 CRISPR technique was discovered by Yoshizumi Ishino that in the next century would be used for genome editing.

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
1901	Adrenaline	Jokichi Takamine, 1901	1901	1901	N/A (Natural Hormone)
1906	Oxytocin	Discovered by Henry Hallett Dale, synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1952	1925	1926	N/A (Natural Hormone)
1907	Arsphenamine	Alfred Bertheim, 1907	N/A	N/A	N/A
1908	Phenytoin	Heinrich Biltz, 1908	N/A	N/A	N/A
1912	Vitamin C	Tadeusz Reichstein, 1933	N/A	N/A	N/A
1912	Phenobarbital	Fischer and Mering Synthesis, 1912	1912	1912	1932
1915	Thyroxine	Isolated by Edward Calvin Kendall, 1915	1915	1915	N/A (Natural Hormone)
1918	Ergotamine	Isolated by Arthur Stoll, Sandoz, 1918	1918	1918	1938
1920	Metamizole	1920	N/A	N/A	N/A
1921	Insulin	Frederick Grant Banting, 1921	1921	1921	N/A (Natural Hormone)
1927	Levothyroxine	Harington and Barger Synthesis, 1927	N/A	1927	(Synthetic hormone)
1928	Penicillin	Alexander Fleming, 1928	1928	1928	Never patented
1932	Sulfanilamide	Paul Josef Jakob Gelmo, 1908	N/A	N/A	1938
1932	Prontosil	Gerhard Domagk, Josef Klarer and Fritz Mietzsch 1932	N/A	N/A	1938
1935	Cortisone	Isolted by Philip Showalter Hench and Edward Calvin Kendall, 1935	1935	1935	N/A (Natural Hormone)
1935	Tetracaine	1935	1935	1935	1955
1935	Methylphenobarbital	1935	1935	1935	1955
1935	Dapsone	1935	1935	1935	1955
1940	Dicoumarol (warfarin)	1940, extracted from Melilotus	1940	1940	1960
1946	Isosorbide	1946	1946	1946	1966
1943	Lidocaine	Nils Löfgren, 1943	1946	1949	1966
1938	Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)	Albert Hofmann, Sandoz	1938	1938	1958
1951	Hydrocortisone	1951	1951	1951	1971
1951	Imipramine	1951	1951	1957	1971
1952	Acetazolamide	1952	1952	1952	1972
1954	Fludrocortisone acetate	1954	1954	1954	1974
1955	Prednisolone	1955	1955	1955	1975
1955	Prednisone	1955	1955	1955	1975
1955	Chlordiazepoxide	Leo Sternbach, Hoffmann-La Roche, 1955	1955	1955	1975
1956	Methylprednisolone	1956	1956	1956	1976
1956	Triamcinolone	1956	1956	1956	1976
1957	Spironolactone	1957	1957	1957	1977
1957	Mepivacaine	A. F. Ekenstam, 1957	1957	1957	1977
1957	Bupivacaine	1957	1957	1957	1977
1957	Chlorothiazide	1957	1957	1957	1977
1958	Dexamethasone	1958	1958	1958	1978
1958	Betamethasone	1958	1958	1958	1978
1958	Clozapine	1958	1958	1958	1978
1958	Triamcinolone acetonide (Nasacort)	1958	1958	1958	1978
1959	Hydrochlorothiazide	1959	1959	1959	1979
1959	Clortalidone	1959	1959	1959	1979
1960	Fentanyl	Paul Jansen, Jansen Pharmaceutica 1960	1960	1969	1980
1961	Mefenamic acid	Claude Winde, Parke-Davis 1961	1961	1969	1981
1961	Ibuprofen	Boots Group, 1961	1961	1969	1981
1961	Flurbiprofen	Boots Group, 1961	1961	1969	1994
1962	Trimethoprim			1962	1982
1962	Furosemide	Calvin L. Stevens, Parke-Davis 1962		1962	1982
1962	Ketamine	Calvin L. Stevens, Parke-Davis 1962		1962	1982
1962	Piroxicam	Pfizer 1962		1962	1992
1962	Meloxicam	Pfizer 1962		1962	Not for use in humans
1962	Beclometasone	David Jack, 1962		1962	1982
1963	Diazepam	Leo Sternbach, 1963	1963	1963	1983
1963	Indometacin	1963	1963	1965	1983
1963	Flufenamic acid	Parke-Davis, 1963	1963	1965	1983
1963	Ropivacaine	1963	1963	1963	1983
1964	Meclofenamic acid	Parke-Davis, 1963	1963	1965	1983
1964	Propranolol	James Black, 1964		1964
1964	Clonazepam	Leo Sternbach, 1964	1964	1964	1984
1964	Triamterene	1964	1964	1964	1984
1964	Tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol)	1964	1964	1964	N/A
1966	Salbutamol (Albuterol)	David Jack, Allen & Hanburys, 1966		1966	1986
1967	Amiloride	1964	1964	1964	1984
1968	Prilocaine	1968	1968	1968	N/A
1970	Ciclosporin	B. Vithal Shetty, 1971		1982
1971	Metolazone	B. Vithal Shetty, 1971		1971
1971	Cimetidine	James Black, 1971		1971
1971	Mupirocin	Isolated in 1971		1971
1971	Etidocaine	Isolated in 1971		1971
1973	Diclofenac	Synthesized by Alfred Sallmann and Rudolf Pfister in 1973		1973	1993
1973	Budesonide	1973		1973	1993
1974	Sulfentanil	Jansen Pharmaceutica, 1974			1994
1974	Carfentanil	Jansen Pharmaceutica, 1974			1994
1976	Ipratropium bromide	1976		1976	1996
1976	Naproxen	1976		1976	1996
1977	Ranitidine	John Bradshaw, Allen & Hanburys, 1977		1981
1977	Propofol	John Bradshaw, Allen & Hanburys, 1977		1981
1977	Tramadol	Grünenthal GmbH, 1977		1977	1997
1981	Verapamil	1981		1981	1997
1985	Salmeterol (Serevent)	David Jack, Allen & Hanburys, 1985		1985	2005
1984	Sumatriptan	David Jack, 1984		1984	2006
1987	Ondansetron	David Jack, 1987		1990	2006
1989	Ketorolac	1989		1989	2009
1993	Fluticasone propionate	David Jack, 1993		1993	2004
1993	Ketoprofen	James W. Young, William J. Wechter and Nancy M. Gray in 1993		1993	2003
1993	Celecoxib	1993		1993	2003
1993	Rofecoxib	1993		1993	2003
1995	Parecoxib	1995		Not approved	2015
1996	Lopinavir			2000	-
1997	Mometasone furoate (Nasonex)	1997		1997	2017
1997	Eletriptan	1997		2002	2017
1998	Ropivacaine	1998	1998	1998	2008
1998	Leflunomide	1998		1998	2008

3rd millennium

21st Century

21st century begins with the first complete sequences of individual human genomes by Human Genome Project, on February 12, 2001, this allowed a switch in drug development and research from the traditional way of drug discovery that was isolating molecules from plants or animals or create new molecules and see if they could be useful in treatment of illness in humans, to pharmacogenomics, that is the study and knowledge of how genes respond to drugs. Another field beneficed by Human Genome Project is pharmacogenetics, that is the study of inherited genetic differences in drug metabolic pathways which can affect individual responses to drugs, both in terms of therapeutic effect as well as adverse effects.^[14]

Humane genome study also allowed to identify which genes are responsible of illness, and to develop drugs for rare diseases and also treatment of illness through gene therapy. In 2015 a simplified form of CRISPR edition was used in humans with Cas9, and also was used an even more simple method, CRISPR/Cpf1 that prevent genetic damage from viruses. These advances are improving personalized medicine and allowing precision medicine.

Year of discovery	Name of the drug	Year when the synthesis mechanism was developed	Year that was Patented	Governmental approval	Patented expired
2000	Bevacizumab			2004	2024
2001	Valdecoxib			2016	N/A
2001	Etoricoxib			2016	N/A
2003	Alirocumab			2015	2035
2006	Linagliptin			2011^[15]	2031
2007	Apixaban			2012	2032
2007	Alectinib			2014	2014
2007	Sofosbuvir	2007, Raymond F. Schinazi.^[16]^[17]	N/A	N/A	N/A
2007	Bevirimat
2012	Ivacaftor			2012	2032
2013	Vilanterol			2013	2033
2014	Evolocumab			2015	2035
2014	Umeclidinium bromide (Incruese Ellipta)			2014	2034
2014	Tisagenlecleucel			2017	2037

References

↑ Nunn, John (2002). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-8061-3504-5.
1 2 3 "The Colorful History of Pills Can Fill Many a Tablet". latimes. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19.
↑ Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (2015). "Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review". Biotechnol. Adv. 33: 1582–614. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001. PMC 4748402. PMID 26281720.
↑ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012) CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology (5 Volume Set) CRC Press. ISBN 978-1420080445
↑ Robson, Barry & Baek, O.K. (2009). The Engines of Hippocrates: From the Dawn of Medicine to Medical and Pharmaceutical Informatics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 9780470289532.
↑ Hong, Francis (2004). "History of Medicine in China" (PDF). McGill Journal of Medicine. 8 (1): 7984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-01.
↑ Unschuld, Pual (2003). Huang Di Nei Jing: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text. University of California Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-520-92849-7.
↑ Ackerknecht, Erwin (1982). A Short History of Medicine. JHU Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8018-2726-6.
↑ Manglik, Aashish; Kruse, Andrew C.; Kobilka, Tong Sun; Thian, Foon Sun; Mathiesen, Jesper M.; Sunahara, Roger K.; Pardo, Leonardo; Weis, William I.; Kobilka, Brian K. (2012-03-21). "Crystal structure of the μ-opioid receptor bound to a morphinan antagonist". Nature. 485 (7398): 321–326. doi:10.1038/nature10954. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 3523197. PMID 22437502. Opium is one of the world’s oldest drugs, and its derivatives morphine and codeine are among the most used clinical drugs to relieve severe pain.
↑ Kritikos, P. G.; Papadaki, S. P. (1967). "The history of the poppy and of opium and their expansion in antiquity in the eastern Mediterranean area". Bulletin on Narcotics. United Nations Office on Drug Control (3–003): 17–38. Retrieved 2016-06-26.
↑ Brownstein, M J (1993). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (12): 5391–5392. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 46725. PMID 8390660. It is hard to decide when and where the opium poppy was first cultivated. ... Despite difficulties in interpreting ancient writings and archeological data, a picture of opium use in antiquity does emerge from them. There is general agreement that the Sumerians, who inhabited what is today Iraq, cultivated poppies and isolated opium from their seed capsules at the end of the third millennium B.C.
↑ The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. 2010. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.
↑ Gates M, Tschudi G (April 1956). "The Synthesis of Morphine". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 78 (7): 1380–1393. doi:10.1021/ja01588a033.
↑ Klotz, U. (2007). "The role of pharmacogenetics in the metabolism of antiepileptic drugs: pharmacokinetic and therapeutic implications". Clin Pharmacokinet. 46 (4): 271–9. doi:10.2165/00003088-200746040-00001. PMID 17375979.
↑ https://www.centerwatch.com/drug-information/fda-approved-drugs/year/2004
↑ "Sofosbuvir (Sovaldi) - Treatment - Hepatitis C Online". www.hepatitisc.uw.edu. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
↑ Gounder, Celine (9 December 2013). "A Better Treatment for Hepatitis C". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016.

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[aem-1] Nunn, John (2002). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-8061-3504-5.

[latimes-2] 1 2 3 "The Colorful History of Pills Can Fill Many a Tablet". latimes. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19.

[3] Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (2015). "Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review". Biotechnol. Adv. 33: 1582–614. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001. PMC 4748402. PMID 26281720.

[4] Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012) CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology (5 Volume Set) CRC Press. ISBN 978-1420080445

[5] Robson, Barry & Baek, O.K. (2009). The Engines of Hippocrates: From the Dawn of Medicine to Medical and Pharmaceutical Informatics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 9780470289532.

[6] Hong, Francis (2004). "History of Medicine in China" (PDF). McGill Journal of Medicine. 8 (1): 7984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-01.

[Unsc-7] Unschuld, Pual (2003). Huang Di Nei Jing: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text. University of California Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-520-92849-7.

[Acker-8] Ackerknecht, Erwin (1982). A Short History of Medicine. JHU Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8018-2726-6.

[9] Manglik, Aashish; Kruse, Andrew C.; Kobilka, Tong Sun; Thian, Foon Sun; Mathiesen, Jesper M.; Sunahara, Roger K.; Pardo, Leonardo; Weis, William I.; Kobilka, Brian K. (2012-03-21). "Crystal structure of the μ-opioid receptor bound to a morphinan antagonist". Nature. 485 (7398): 321–326. doi:10.1038/nature10954. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 3523197. PMID 22437502. Opium is one of the world’s oldest drugs, and its derivatives morphine and codeine are among the most used clinical drugs to relieve severe pain.

[10] Kritikos, P. G.; Papadaki, S. P. (1967). "The history of the poppy and of opium and their expansion in antiquity in the eastern Mediterranean area". Bulletin on Narcotics. United Nations Office on Drug Control (3–003): 17–38. Retrieved 2016-06-26.

[:Brownstyein-11] Brownstein, M J (1993). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (12): 5391–5392. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 46725. PMID 8390660. It is hard to decide when and where the opium poppy was first cultivated. ... Despite difficulties in interpreting ancient writings and archeological data, a picture of opium use in antiquity does emerge from them. There is general agreement that the Sumerians, who inhabited what is today Iraq, cultivated poppies and isolated opium from their seed capsules at the end of the third millennium B.C.

[ct-12] The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. 2010. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.

[Gates_1956-13] Gates M, Tschudi G (April 1956). "The Synthesis of Morphine". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 78 (7): 1380–1393. doi:10.1021/ja01588a033.

[Klotz-2007-14] Klotz, U. (2007). "The role of pharmacogenetics in the metabolism of antiepileptic drugs: pharmacokinetic and therapeutic implications". Clin Pharmacokinet. 46 (4): 271–9. doi:10.2165/00003088-200746040-00001. PMID 17375979.

[15] ttps://www.centerwatch.com/drug-information/fda-approved-drugs/year/2004

[UW2017-16] "Sofosbuvir (Sovaldi) - Treatment - Hepatitis C Online". www.hepatitisc.uw.edu. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.

[NewYorker-17] Gounder, Celine (9 December 2013). "A Better Treatment for Hepatitis C". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016.