Law enforcement in Japan

National level

Local level

Tokyo Metropolitan Police Office in Kasumigaseki

There are some 289,000 police officers nationwide, about 97 percent of whom were affiliated with local police forces. Local forces include:^[3]

• forty-three Prefectural (ken) Police Departments;
• Tokyo Metropolitan (to) Police Departments, in Tokyo;
• two urban Prefectural (fu) Police Departments, in Osaka and Kyoto; and
• one district (dō) Police Departments, in Hokkaidō.

These police departments are responsible for every police actions within their jurisdiction in principle, but most important activities are regulated by the National Police Agency. Police officers whose rank are higher than Assistant Commissioner (警視正, Keishi-sei) are salaried by the National budget even if they belong to local police departments. Designation and dismissal of these high-rank officers are delegated to National Public Safety Commission.^[4]

The NPA also provides funds for equipment like Police radio systems, riot control action, escort operation, and natural disaster duties, and for internal security and multiple jurisdiction cases. National police statutes and regulations establish the strength and rank allocations of all local personnel and the locations of local police stations. Prefectural police finance and control the patrol officer on the beat, traffic control, criminal investigations, and other daily operations.

Each prefectural police headquarters contains administrative divisions corresponding to those of the bureaus of the National Police Agency. Headquarters are staffed by specialists in basic police functions and administration and are commanded by an officer appointed by the local office of the National Public Safety Commission. Most arrests and investigations are performed by prefectural police officials (and, in large jurisdictions, by police assigned to substations), who are assigned to one or more central locations within the prefecture. Experienced officers are organized into functional bureaus and handle all but the most ordinary problems in their fields.

Local Station Structure

Each District Headquarters commands several police stations. Each station includes the following:^[5]

• Administration Section
• Traffic Section
• Security Section
• Community Police Affairs Section
• Criminal Investigation Section
• Community Safety Section
• Organized Crime Control Section

Criminal investigation

Police detectives receiving inspection.

See also: Criminal justice system of Japan

In the Empire of Japan, the criminal investigation was presided over by prosecutors, like the Ministère public does in French law. Then, with the 1947 Police Law and 1948 Code of Criminal Procedure, responsibility of the investigation has been defined that uniquely located at police officers. In order to fulfill this responsibility, Criminal Investigation Departments or Bureaus (Judiciary Police) were set up in each police organization. After the establishment of the 1954 amended Police Law, these departments are supervised by the Criminal Affairs Bureau of the National Police Agency.^[6]

Criminal Investigation Departments or Bureaus maintain two Investigation Divisions (捜査課, Sousa-ka) (third or even fourth Divisions are established in some urban prefecture), a Organized Crime Investigation Division (組織犯罪対策課, Soshikihanzai-taisaku-ka) (reinforced as an independent department or headquarters in the TMPD and some prefecture), a Mobile Investigation Unit, and a Identification Division (鑑識課, Kanshiki-ka). The Mobile Investigation Units (機動捜査隊, Kidō Sousa-tai) are primary reaction units for initial criminal investigations, distributed among the region with unmarked cars. The Special Investigation Teams (特殊事件捜査係, Tokushu-jiken Sousa-kakari) are specialized detective units of the First Investigation Divisions, well acquainted with new technology and special tactics including SWAT capabilities.^[6]

Public security

See also: Public order and internal security in Japan

Community Safety

Officer providing assistance at a police station in Hiroshima, near Hondori

Kōbans are substations near major transportation hubs and shopping areas and in residential districts. They form the first line of police response to the public. The Koban system is composed of about 6500 police boxes (Koban) and about 7600 residential police boxes (Chuzaisho).^[7] Koban are staffed by a relatively small number of police officers (usually 3-5 officers); a Chuzaisho is usually staffed by a single officer. About 20 percent of the total police force's officers are assigned to koban. Staffed by officers working in eight-hour shifts, they serve as a base for foot patrols and usually have both sleeping and eating facilities for officers on duty but not on watch. In rural areas, residential offices usually are staffed by one police officer who resides in adjacent family quarters. These officers endeavor to become a part of the community, and their families often aid in performing official tasks.

Vigilance at the Koban and Chuzaisho is maintained by standing watch in front or sitting watch inside, enabling police officers to respond immediately to any incident. While keeping a constant watch, they perform a myriad of routine tasks, such as receiving crime reports from citizens, handling lost and found articles, counseling citizens in trouble and giving directions.

Outside their Koban and Chuzaisho, police officers patrol their beats either on foot, by bicycle or by car. While on patrol, they gain a precise knowledge of the topography and terrain of the area, question suspicious-looking persons, provide traffic guidance and enforcement, instruct juveniles, rescue the injured, warn citizens of imminent dangers and protect lost children and those under the influence or intoxicated.

Radio-equipped patrol cars are deployed at each PPH, police station, Koban and Chuzaisho. Police officers use them for routine patrol and rapid response. These cars remain in constant radio contact with their police station and the communications command center of the PPH. When an emergency is reported, this rapid response capability plays a major role in the quick resolution of such incidents.^[8]

Officers assigned to koban have intimate knowledge of their jurisdictions. One of their primary tasks is to conduct twice-yearly house-by-house residential surveys of homes in their areas, at which time the head of the household at each address fills out a residence information card detailing the names, ages, occupations, business addresses, and vehicle registration numbers of household occupants and the names of relatives living elsewhere. Police take special note of names of the aged or those living alone who might need special attention in an emergency. They conduct surveys of local businesses and record employee names and addresses, in addition to such data as which establishments stay open late and which employees might be expected to work late. Participation in the survey is voluntary, and most citizens cooperate, but an increasing segment of the population has come to regard the surveys as invasions of privacy.

Information elicited through the surveys is not centralized but is stored in each police box, where it is used primarily as an aid to locating people. When a crime occurs or an investigation is under way, however, these files are invaluable in establishing background data for a case. Specialists from district police stations spend considerable time culling through the usually poorly filed data maintained in the police boxes.

Riot control and counter-terrorism

Anti-firearms officers of the Saitama Prefectural Police.

Within their Security Departments or Bureaus, each prefectural police department including the TMPD maintain Riot Police Units (機動隊, Kidō-tai). These units are not only riot police units literally, but also some kind of rapid reaction force for disaster relief or other emergency missions, and reinforcement for regular police when necessary. Full-time riot police can also be augmented by regular police trained in riot duties.^[9]

Counter-terrorism operations are also the affairs of the Security Departments. The Special Assault Teams are the national-level units and Anti-firearms squads are the local units.^[10] These units are established within the Riot Police Units basically, but Special Assault Teams of the TMPD and Osaka Prefectural Police are under direct control of their Security Bureau or Department. Special Investigation Teams of the Criminal Investigation Departments are mandated for law enforcement missions against heavily armed criminals except terrorists,^[11] but in some rural but well-versed Prefectural Police like Aomori, these detectives can form a counter-terrorism task force together with uniformed officers and riot specialists.^[12]

Operations of these units are supervised by the Security Bureau of the NPA.^[13]

Conditions of service

Education is highly stressed in police recruitment and promotion. Entrance to the force is determined by examinations administered by each prefecture. Examinees are divided into two groups: upper-secondary-school graduates and university graduates. Recruits underwent rigorous training—one year for upper-secondary school graduates and six months for university graduates—at the residential police academy attached to the prefectural headquarters. On completion of basic training, most police officers are assigned to local police boxes called Kobans. Promotion is achieved by examination and requires further course work. In-service training provides mandatory continuing education in more than 100 fields. Police officers with upper-secondary school diplomas are eligible to take the examination for sergeant after three years of on-the-job experience. University graduates can take the examination after only one year. University graduates are also eligible to take the examination for inspector, chief inspector, and superintendent after shorter periods than upper-secondary school graduates. There are usually five to fifteen examinees for each opening.

About fifteen officers per year pass advanced civil service examinations and are admitted as senior officers. Officers are groomed for administrative positions, and, although some rise through the ranks to become senior administrators, most such positions are held by specially recruited senior executives.

The police forces are subject to external oversight. Although officials of the National Public Safety Commission generally defer to police decisions and rarely exercise their powers to check police actions or operations, police are liable for civil and criminal prosecution, and the media actively publicizes police misdeeds. The Human Rights Bureau of the Ministry of Justice solicits and investigates complaints against public officials, including police, and prefectural legislatures could summon police chiefs for questioning. Social sanctions and peer pressure also constrain police behavior. As in other occupational groups in Japan, police officers develop an allegiance to their own group and a reluctance to offend its principles.

Ranks

Police officers are divided into nine ranks:^[14]

The NPA Commissioner General holds the highest position of the Japanese police.^[16] His title is not a rank, but rather denotes his position as head of the NPA. On the other hand, the MPD Superintendent General represents not only the highest rank in the system but also assignment as head of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department.^[16]

Special judicial police officials (特別司法警察職員)

Officials working for public safety, except for Special judicial police officials

There are other officers having limited public safety functions.

Tables

Officers working for public safety

Officer	are Special judicial police officials (特別司法警察職員)	can arrest suspects with arrest warrant	can carry firearms	Salary schedule which is applied
Imperial guard (皇宮護衛官)	Y	Y	Y	Public Security Service
Prison guard (刑務官)	Y	Y	Y	Public Security Service
Narcotics agent (麻薬取締官)	Y	Y	Y	Administrative Service
Labor Standards Inspector (労働基準監督官)	Y	Y	N	Administrative Service
Authorized Fisheries Supervisor (漁業監督官)	Y	Y	N	Administrative Service
Coast Guard Officer (海上保安官)	Y	Y	Y	Public Security Service
Military police officer (警務官)	Y	Y	Y	Officials of Ministry of Defense
Diet guard (衛視)	N	N	N	(議院警察職)
Immigration control officer (入国警備官)	N	N	Y	Public Security Service
Immigration inspector (入国審査官)	N	N	Y	Administrative Service
Public security intelligence officer (公安調査官)	N	N	N	Public Security Service
Public prosecutor (検察官)	N	Y	N	Public Prosecutor
Public prosecutor's assistant officer (検察事務官)	N	Y	N	Public Security Service
Customs official (税関職員)	N	N	Y	Administrative Service
cf.) Police officer	(judicial police official)	Y	Y	Public Security Service

Uniform

For much of the twentieth century up to the mid-1990s, police officers wore a formal work uniform consisting of a tunic or Ike jacket with polished silver buttons, and trousers with a sewn in truncheon pocket. No stab vest was worn and much less equipment was carried than is today. Following concerns about the police uniforms safety it was suggested that the uniform should be changed.

From the 1990s it was generally accepted that the police could patrol in "shirt-sleeve order" which meant that they need not wear the jacket, as its widespread use was hampering in some situations. The NPA, in agreement with the government and on the cooperation of the Prefecture Chiefs of Police, changed the uniform from the business attire with no protection of the torso, to a uniform of button down shirt with trousers, stab vest, duty belt, and jacket when needed.

Although there are minor variations in the styling, pattern and insignia, the police forces all wear very similar uniforms. In general, these have taken their lead from the Tokyo Metropolitan Police, due to it being the largest police service in Japan. The base color is a dark blue or a frosted grey for summer wear.

Female officers' uniforms have gone through a great variety of styles, as they have tended to reflect the women's fashions of the time. Tunic style, skirt length and headgear have varied by period and force. By the late 1980s, the female working uniform was virtually identical to male, except for headgear and sometimes neckwear.

Formal uniform comprises an open-necked tunic (with or without an attached belt, depending on the force and rank of the Officer) and trousers or skirt, worn with a white or light blue shirt and black tie (usually clip-on, so it cannot be used to strangle the wearer).

The normal working dress retains the shirt and trousers. In some forces short sleeved shirts may be worn open-necked. Long sleeved shirts must always be worn with a tie, worn with or without a jersey or fleece. If a jersey, fleece or jacket is worn over a short sleeved shirt, then a tie must be worn.

Today, female officers almost never wear a skirt in working dress, and frequently wear trousers in formal dress as well. Officers also frequently wear reflective waterproof jackets, which have replaced the old greatcoats and cloaks traditionally worn in inclement weather. Most officers now wear stab vests, a type of body armour, when on duty.

Basic headgear is a peaked cap for men, and a soft round bowler hat for women. Traffic officers wear white cap covers or caps.

Most Japanese police wear white gloves while they are on duty. Some also wear white pistol belts, lanyards, helmets, boot laces or leggings.

Service weapon

A superintendent reviewing firearms of his officers.

Hostage rescue operators with Beretta 92 in a shooting range.

Anti-Firearms Squad with Heckler & Koch MP5.

In the pre-war era, most Japanese law enforcement officials had only a sabre. Only some elite detectives, bodyguards, or SWAT units such as the Emergency Service Unit of the TMPD were issued pistols. FN Model 1910 or Colt Model 1903 were used for open-carry uses, and Colt Model 1908 Vest Pocket or FN M1905 for concealed carry. During the Occupation, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers suggested them to be equipped with firearms. Because of the insufficient stocks of the domestic handguns, Japanese police started to receive service pistols leased from the Allies from 1949, and by 1951, all officers were issued pistols.^[17]

At the beginning, types of sidearm varied, but M1911 pistols and M1917 revolvers, Smith & Wesson Military & Police and Colt Official Police were used as the main sidearm. The .38 caliber revolvers were well-received, but .45 caliber handguns were too large to carry for somewhat small officers especially women. And especially M1917 revolvers were obsolete, deteriorated significantly, so malfunction or reduced accuracy had been a problem. As a response to these issues, the National Rural Police Headquarters (one of the predecessors of the National Police Agency) started to import small .38 Special caliber revolvers such as Smith & Wesson Chiefs Special and Colt Detective Special. And from the 1960s, procurement began to migrate to the domestic Minebea "New Nambu" M60. When the production of the M60 was completed in the 1990s, deployment of small semi-automatic pistols were considered, but this plan was abandoned after small numbers of SIG Sauer P230 were deployed. Finally, imports from the United States was resumed, S&W M37 and M360 revolvers have been purchased for uniformed officers. And some elite detectives, bodyguards, or counter-terrorism units such as the Special Assault Team are equipped with 9×19mm Parabellum caliber semi-automatic pistols, Heckler & Koch USP, for example.^[18]

From 1970s, Special Armed Police units (ancestors of the Special Assault Teams) introduced Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns. And from 2000s, local counter-terrorism units (Anti-firearms squads) and SWAT units of crime branches (Special Investigation Team of the TMPD, for example) were started to be equipped with MP5. In the SAT units, there are also assault rifles.^[18]

Initially the sniper team was established in the 1960s, the Golden Bear has been used as a sniper rifle, then, it has been updated to the M1500. In the Special Assault Teams, Heckler & Koch PSG1 and L96A1 also been deployed.^[18]

In the Japanese police, service pistols are generally left at work when they are not on duty.^[19]

Transportation