War School of Kaunas

Establishment

Lithuania declared independence in February 1918, but began forming the Lithuanian Army only in December 1918 at the outbreak of the Lithuanian–Soviet War. Officers of the new military units were mostly Lithuanians who had served in the Imperial Russian Army during World War I. After the Uprising of 1863, Russian government considered Lithuanians to be unreliable and would not admit them to Russian military academies or promote them to commanding officers.^[2] During World War I, due to lack of officers, these restrictions were relaxed and a number of Lithuanians graduated from temporary 4 to 5-month military courses and were promoted to junior officers (usually to praporshchik) though only a few managed to get to more senior positions.^[2] Mobilization of these former Imperial Russian officers was announced on 15 January 1919, but only about 400 responded instead of the expected 800 to 1,000.^[3]

On the same day daily Lietuva announced admission procedures to the war school in Kaunas, but at that time the school had neither staff nor premises.^[4] Its first director, polkovnik Jonas Galvydis-Bykauskas, was appointed only ten days later.^[5] His deputy, Pranas Tvarionas, copied the curriculum from a 4-month praporshchik school he served in Chistopol,^[5] found premises on Donelaitis Street, found lecturers and hired staff, and acquired supplies from kitchen utensils to textbooks to national coat of arms.^[6] British and French Military Representatives provided some limited support; for example, French captain René Cohendet taught physical education^[7] while British colonel Henry Rowan-Robinson and General Frank Percy Crozier attended tactical practices.^[8] The cadets were initially referred to by a Russian–German term junker until philologist Kazimieras Būga proposed Lithuanian equivalent kariūnas which was officially adopted in May 1922.^[9]

First three classes

The school began operations on 8 March^[10] and on 1 April had an official opening ceremony attended by many officials, including Chairman of the Council of Lithuania Antanas Smetona and Minister of Defence Antanas Merkys.^[11] Its first class had 124 cadets^[10] who each received a monthly salary of 10 German Marks^[12] and later 50 Lithuanian auksinas.^[13] This class was the youngest: cadets were mostly 17–19-year-olds.^[14] Cadets could choose their specialty: infantry, machine gun, artillery, cavalry, pioneer.^[15] 96 of them graduated on 6 July and later were promoted to lieutenants.^[15] The class was sent to the front in the Lithuanian Wars of Independence where five of them died and 28 were awarded the Order of the Cross of Vytis.^[16]

The second class of 300 cadets began their studies on 31 July 1919.^[17] They were chosen from some 800 candidates.^[18] Due to particularly difficult situation in the front, the cadets guarded and patrolled Kaunas and participated in the liquidation of the coup d'état attempt by the Polish Military Organisation.^[17] Upon graduation on 16 December, 200 men were promoted to lieutenants and 24 to sub-lieutenants.^[17] Ten men of the second class died in the front, 15 were awarded the Order of the Cross of Vytis, and 23 received the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas.^[19] The second class was joined by 34 cadets of Military Aviation School. It was the only class of aviation students as the Military Aviation School was liquidated on 18 December.^[19]

The third class of 152 cadets began their studies on 16 January 1920.^[19] At the time, there was a lull in the front and the lack of officers was less urgent. Therefore, the length of study was extended to one year.^[20] A new school statute was adopted in March which made the school a direct subordinate of the General Staff.^[20] When soldiers of Kaunas garrison, affected by poor living conditions and socialist revolutionary moods, began a mutiny on 21–23 February 1920, cadets were a reliable force that the government could use against the garrison.^[21] They also guarded the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania when it convened on 15 May.^[21] After Soviet Union handed Vilnius to Lithuania according to the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty, the school relocated to Vilnius on 25 September. There it took the abandoned building of the former military school of the Russian Empire.^[21] However, just two weeks later, it was forced to hastily evacuate back to Kaunas due to the Żeligowski's Mutiny leaving much of its supplies and equipment behind.^[22] In order to stop the Polish advance, 75 lieutenants and 7 sub-lieutenants from the third class were sent to the front on 17 October.^[23]

Post-war curriculum

The fourth class was hastily assembled and classes commenced on 15 November 1920.^[23] At 400 men it was the largest incoming class, but only 209 graduated on 18 December 1921. Among the graduates were several aviators including Steponas Darius.^[24] Since Lithuania was no longer engaged in any active conflicts, the education curriculum was expanded to include greater variety of military specialties and extended to two years starting in 1922.^[24] The school reoriented itself from catering to urgent needs of the front to more long-term strategic goals. In December 1922, the school was relocated from the city center to Panemunė which was better suited to military needs.^[9] Two companies of cadets of 81 and 69 men participated in the Klaipėda Revolt in January 1923.^[25]

To eliminate inconsistencies and contradictions in the curriculum, the War School was temporarily for about two years subordinated to the Higher Officers' Courses in November 1923.^[26] Due to the chaotic first years, the curriculum was not well planned and depended for most part on the instructor.^[26] As some cadets had only three or four years of prior education, they lacked some basic knowledge of mathematics and other general subjects to master the more specialized military topics such as artillery or topography. Therefore, in 1924, the school began a 3-year preparatory course for those with less than six years of prior education.^[27] In 1928, this preparatory course was eliminated reserving admissions only to those with a 8-year school diploma.^[28] To gain admission, men had to take and pass exams in Lithuanian language and history as well as pass medical examination.^[29] Therefore, only a small number of candidates would be admitted. For example, in 1928, out of approximately 150 applicants only 52 were admitted.^[29]

Lectures in 1925

Initially, the curriculum lacked such basic classes as military history or military geography due to lack of qualified instructors.^[27] However, the curriculum was continuously improved and by 1927–1928 it was comparable to those of similar military schools in other countries.^[30] Many officers of the General Staff were assigned a teaching position.^[31] In 1924, classes included religious education, tactics, military equipment, machine guns, mortars, shooting range, military administration, military law, military history, topography, fortifications, artillery, Lithuanian language and literature, knowledge of the homeland, physics and chemistry, algebra, trigonometry, typology, hygiene, world history, French and German languages, physical education (gymnastics).^[27] In 1932, classes included religious education, general tactics, infantry tactics, military history, military law, military psychology, military organisation, commissariat, topography, pioneer subjects, chemistry, artillery, cavalry, aviation, mortars, heavy machine guns, communications, German language, physical education, dance and singing.^[29]

As part of a broader military reform initiated by Stasys Raštikis, a new school statute was adopted in July 1935. The studies were extended to three years. After an initial 2–3 week training in school, the men would be sent for a 7-month in-the-field training in various regiments.^[32] There they familiarized with realities of the armed forces, learned weapons, and participated in field practices.^[33] Then they returned to the school to study military history, tactics (general, infantry, artillery, cavalry), military engineering (pioneer), topography, communications, military law, shooting, hygiene, explosives, chemical weapons, physical education, horse riding, religious education, German and Russian languages, dancing and singing, etiquette.^[34] During all three years, cadets participated in foot drills.^[34] In January 1940, the school had 55 instructors.^[35]

Aspirant and other courses

Graduation ceremony

Starting in 1926, the school began aspirant courses for the reservists.<51>

The school organizer special courses for weapons specialists. Four classes completed this course: 10 men graduated in July 1932, 17 men in 1933, about 30 men in December 1937, and 17 men in May 1940.^[36] Topics covered included ballistics, pyrotechnics, functions and maintenance of all the different weapons used by the Lithuanian military.^[37] In 1934, after the unsuccessful coup d'état attempt by Voldemarininkai, the school organized a special 10-month course for aspirant course graduates who after graduation were promised an active military position.^[38] Over 300 men applied, but only 110 were admitted. The curriculum, in essence, was the same as the regular 2-year course for cadets, only shortened to 10 months, which did not take into account the previous experience and education of these men.^[38] 103 of them graduated on 10 May 1936.^[39]

Cultural life

Scene from the football game in the War School of Kaunas

Liquidation

World War II started on 1 September 1939 and Lithuania declared partial mobilization on 17 September. The third-year cadets were given orders to report to various units. However, soon the army was demobilized and cadets returned to their studies.^[35] In May 1940, the graduating cadets successfully passed final exams and were sent for training to a proving ground north of Pabradė.^[35] The training included 502 men who were armed with seven field artillery guns, two Oerlikon 20 mm cannons, two mortars, 12 heavy and 14 light machine guns.^[40] On 15 June, the morning after the Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania, the men returned to Kaunas by train via Vilnius.^[40] The army, including the War School which had some 600 men, was ordered not to resist the Red Army that was entering the country.^[1]

The Soviet Union began the gradual process of turning the Lithuanian Army into units of the Red Army. On 14 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union adopted a secret resolution to turn the Lithuanian Armed Forces to the 29th Territorial Rifle Corps and the War School to an infantrymen school for the Red Army.^[41] However, changes were evident earlier. Already on 19 June, the school's name and symbols were changed to remove references to President Antanas Smetona.^[42] The school also received a political commissar.^[43] The graduation ceremony of the 21st class on 15 July was attended by officials, including acting President Justas Paleckis, Minister of Foreign Affairs Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius, and Minister of Defence Vincas Vitkauskas, but was rather simple. There were no masses or parades, the national anthem was replaced by The Internationale, the ceremonial swords and Lithuanian insignia on uniforms were removed.^[43] Officially, 72 graduates were promoted to junior lieutenants and assigned to various units on 19 August 1940.^[44]

On 30 August, the Council of People's Commissars of the Lithuanian SSR officially ordered the reorganization of the War School into the infantrymen school.^[45] On 12–14 September, the school relocated to Vilnius.^[45] At the same time, the school hastened the completion of studies for the 22nd class (69 cadets were assigned to the 29th Territorial Rifle Corps on 15 September).^[46] The 23rd class was enlarged by 52 cadets on 8 September^[44] only to be dispersed in November.^[46] The Russian curriculum did not provide for aspirants and the last class of reservists graduated on October 2.^[46]

On 20 September, Russian polkovnik G. Sokurov became the school director. This foreshadowed massive changes in school's personnel: out of 45 officers on 1 September only 18 were left by the end of December.^[45] During that time, 56 Lithuanian officers, including General Stasys Raštikis, were temporarily reassigned from their units to the school.^[45] In November, two batches of 601 (all Russians) and 454 (about 90% Lithuanians) students were admitted.^[47] Their length of study was reduced to two years and they were taught by mostly Russian instructors.^[48] In early 1941, the school had about 1,000 students, 200 instructors, and 50 political commissars.^[48] This Red Army school was dispersed when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.^[48]