Hannah Arendt

Hannah Arendt
Photo of Hannah Arendt in 1975
Hannah Arendt in 1975
Born Johanna Cohn Arendt
(1906-10-14)14 October 1906
Linden, Prussian Hanover, German Empire
Died 4 December 1975(1975-12-04) (aged 69)
New York City, United States
Resting place Bard College, New York, U.S.
Nationality
Other names Hannah Arendt Bluecher
Spouse(s)
Günther Stern
(m. 1929; div. 1937)

Heinrich Blücher
(m. 1940; d. 1970)
Parent(s)
  • Paul Arendt
  • Martha Cohn
Relatives Max Arendt (grandfather)
Henriette Arendt (aunt)

Philosophy career
Education University of Berlin
University of Marburg
University of Freiburg
University of Heidelberg (PhD, 1929)
Notable work
Era Contemporary philosophy
Region Western philosophy
School
Doctoral advisor Karl Jaspers[5]
Main interests
Political theory, theory of totalitarianism, philosophy of history, theory of modernity
Notable ideas
Website hac.bard.edu
Signature

Johanna "Hannah" Cohn Arendt (/ˈɛərənt, ˈɑːr-/; German: [ˈaːʁənt];[9] Hannah Arendt Bluecher; 14 October 1906 – 4 December 1975) was a German-born American philosopher and political theorist. Her many books and articles on topics ranging from totalitarianism to epistemology have had a lasting influence on political theory. Arendt is widely considered one of the most important political philosophers of the twentieth century.

Arendt was born in Hanover, but largely raised in Königsberg in a secular merchant Jewish culture to parents who were politically progressive, being supporters of the Social Democrats. Her father died when she was seven, so she was raised by her mother and grandfather. After completing her secondary education, she studied at the University of Marburg under Martin Heidegger, with whom she had a brief affair, but who had a lasting influence on her thinking. She obtained her doctorate in philosophy in 1929 at the University of Heidelberg with Karl Jaspers.

Hannah Arendt married Günther Stern in 1929, but soon began to encounter increasing antisemitism in 1930s Germany. Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and while researching antisemitic propaganda for the Zionist Federation of Germany in Berlin that year, Arendt was denounced and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo. On release, she fled Germany, living in Czechoslovakia and Switzerland before settling in Paris. There she worked for Youth Aliyah, assisting young Jews to emigrate to Palestine. Divorcing Stern in 1937, she married Heinrich Blücher in 1940, but when Germany invaded France in 1940 she was detained by the French as an alien, despite having been stripped of her German citizenship in 1937. She escaped and made her way to the United States in 1941 via Portugal. She settled in New York, which remained her principal residence for the rest of her life. She became a writer and editor and worked for the Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, becoming an American citizen in 1950. With the appearance of The Origins of Totalitarianism in 1951, her reputation as a thinker and writer was established and a series of seminal works followed. These included The Human Condition in 1958, and both Eichmann in Jerusalem and On Revolution in 1963. She taught at many American universities, while declining tenure-track appointments. She died suddenly from a heart attack in 1975, at the age of 69, leaving her last work, The Life of the Mind, unfinished.

Her works cover a broad range of topics, but she is best known for those dealing with the nature of power and evil, as well as politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. In the popular mind she is best remembered for the controversy surrounding the trial of Adolf Eichmann, her attempt to explain how ordinary people become actors in totalitarian systems, which was considered an apologia, and for the phrase "the banality of evil". She is commemorated by institutions and journals devoted to her thinking, the Hannah Arendt Prize for political thinking, and on stamps, street names and schools, amongst other things.

Early life and education (1906–1929)

Family of origin

Parents
Photo of Hannah's mother, Martha Cohn, in 1899
Martha Cohn 1899
Photo of Hannah's father, Paul Arendt, in 1900
Paul Arendt 1900

Hannah Arendt was born Johanna Cohn Arendt[10][11] in 1906 into a comfortable educated secular family of German Jews in Linden, Prussia (now a part of Hanover), in Wilhelmine Germany. The family were merchants of Russian extraction from Königsberg,[lower-alpha 1] the East Prussian capital. There, her grandparents were Reform Jews. Hannah's paternal grandfather, Max Arendt (1843–1913), was a prominent businessman, local politician,[12] one of the leaders of the Königsberg Jewish community and a member of the Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens (Central Organinzation for German Citizens of the Jewish Faith). Like other members of the Centralverein he saw himself primarily as German and disapproved of the activities of Zionists, such as the young Kurt Blumenfeld (1884–1963), who was a frequent visitor to their home and would later become one of Hannah's mentors. Of Max Arendt's children, Paul Arendt (1873–1913) was an engineer and Henriette Arendt (1874–1922) a policewoman who became a social worker.[13][14]

Hannah was the only child of Paul and Martha (born Cohn) Arendt (1874–1948),[15] who were married on April 11, 1902, and was named after her paternal grandmother.[16][17] The Cohns had originally come to Königsberg from nearby Russian territory (now Lithuania) in 1852, as refugees from anti-semitism there, and made their living as tea importers, J. N. Cohn & Company becoming the largest business in the city. The Arendts had reached Germany from Russia a century earlier.[18][19] Hannah's extended family contained many more women than men, and women who shared the loss of husbands and children. Hannah's parents were better educated and politically more to the left than her grandparents, both being members of the Social Democrats, [10] rather than the German Democratic Party that most of their contemporaries supported. Paul Arendt was educated at the Albertina (University of Königsberg). Though he worked as an engineer, he prided himself on his love of Classics. He collected a large library, in which Hannah immersed herself. Martha Cohn, a musician, had studied for three years in Paris.[14]

At the time of Hannah's birth, Paul Arendt was employed by an electrical engineering firm in Linden, and they lived in a frame house on the market square (Marktplatz).[20] The Arendt family moved back to Königsberg in 1909, because of Paul's deteriorating health.[21][6] Hannah's father suffered from a prolonged illness with syphilis and had to be institutionalized in 1911. He died on October 30, 1913, when Hannah was seven, leaving her mother to raise her.[16][22] They lived at Hannah's grandfather's house at Tiergartenstrasse 6, a leafy residential street adjacent to the Königsberg Tiergarten, in the predominantly Jewish neighborhood of Hufen.[23] Although Hannah's parents were non-religious, they were happy to allow Max Arendt to take Hannah to the Reform synagogue. She also received religious instruction from the rabbi, Hermann Vogelstein, who would come to her school for that purpose. At the time the young Hannah confided that she wished to marry him when she grew up.[14] Her family moved in circles that included many intellectuals and professionals. It was a social circle of high standards and ideals. As she recalled it:

My early intellectual formation occurred in an atmosphere where nobody paid much attention to moral questions; we were brought up under the assumption: Das Moralische versteht sich von selbst, moral conduct is a matter of course.[24]

The Arendt Family
Photo of Hannah's grandfather, Max Arendt holding Hannah. Date unknown, probably aged 3-4
Hannah Arendt with her grandfather, Max, in 1907
Hannah with her mother, age 6
Hannah with her mother in 1912
Photo of Hannah with her mother in 1914, at the age of 8
Hannah with her mother in 1914
Photo of Hannah as a schoolgirl studying in the family library in 1920
Hannah as a schoolgirl in 1920

This was a particularly favorable period for the Jewish community in Königsberg, an important center of the Haskalah (enlightenment).[25][26] Arendt's family was thoroughly assimilated ("Germanized")[27] and she later remembered: "With us from Germany, the word 'assimilation' received a 'deep' philosophical meaning. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it."[28] Despite these conditions, the Jewish population lacked full citizenship rights, and although antisemitism was not overt, nor was it absent.[29] Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering overt antisemitism as an adult.[28] She came to greatly identify with Rahel Varnhagen (1771–1833), the Prussian socialite[22] who desperately wanted to assimilate into German culture, only to be rejected because she was born Jewish.[28] Arendt later said of Varnhagen that she was "my very closest woman friend, unfortunately dead a hundred years now."[28] Varnhagen would later become the subject of a biography by Hannah.[30]

Beerwald-Arendt Family
Photo of Hannah's stepfather, Martin Beerwald, Hannah and her mother, Martha Arendt Beerwwald in 1923
Martin Beerwald, Hannah and her mother, 1923
Photo of Hannah with her stepsisters, Eva and Clara Beerwald in 1922
Eva and Clara Beerwald & Hannah, 1922

After the First World War ended, Hannah's mother organized social democratic discussion groups and became a follower of Rosa Luxembourg (1871-1919) as socialist uprisings broke out across Germany.[31] Luxembourg's writings would later influence Hannah's political thinking. In 1920, Martha Cohn married Martin Beerwald (1869–1941), an ironmonger and widower, and they moved to his home at Busoldstrasse 6,[32] providing Hannah with improved social and financial security. Hannah was fourteen at the time and acquired two older stepsisters, Clara (1901–1932) and Eva (1902–1988).[33]

Education

Early education

Schools
Photo of Hannah's secondary school, the Queen Louise School for girls
Königin-Luise-Schule in Königsberg ca. 1914

Hannah Arendt enrolled in the Szittnich School, Königsberg (Hufen-Oberlyzeum), on Bahnstrasse in August 1913, but her studies there were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I, forcing the family to temporarily flee to Berlin on August 23, 1914, in the face of the advancing Russian army.[34] There they stayed with her mother's sister, Margarethe Fürst (1884–1942),[lower-alpha 2] and her three children, while Hannah attended school in Berlin-Charlottenburg.[35] After ten weeks, when Königsberg appeared to be no longer threatened, the Arendts were able to return, where they spent the remaining war years at her grandfather's house. Arendt was precocious, learning ancient Greek as a child,[36] writing poetry in her teenage years,[37] and starting a philosophy club at her school. By the age of 14, she had read Kierkegaard, Jaspers' Psychologie der Weltanschauungen and Kant's Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason). Kant, whose home town was also Königsberg, was an important influence on her thinking, and it was Kant who had written about Königsberg that "such a town is the right place for gaining knowledge concerning men and the world even without travelling".[38] Arendt attended the Königin-Luise-Schule for her secondary education, a girls' Gymnasium on Landhofmeisterstrasse.[39] Most of her friends, while at school, were older than her. Among them was Ernst Grumach (1902–1967), who introduced her to his girlfriend, Anne Mendelssohn,[lower-alpha 3] who would become a lifelong friend. When Anne moved away, Ernst became Hannah's first romantic relationship. Like Hanna, Anne would go on to become a philosopher, while Ernst became a philologist.[41]

Early homes
Photograph of the house that Hannah was born in, in the market Place in Linden
Hannah Arendt's birthplace in Linden
Photo of Tiergartenstrasse in the 1920s
Tiergartenstrasse, Königsberg 1920s
Photo of the House Hannah Arendt lived in in Marburg
Lutherstrasse 4, Marburg
Old postcard of Schlossberg in Heidelberg, where Hannah lived
Schlossberg, Heidelberg

Higher education

Photo of Hannah in 1924
Hannah 1924

Her education at the Luise-Schule ended in 1923 when she was expelled for boycotting a teacher who insulted her. Instead, her mother arranged for her to audit classes at the University of Berlin (1922–1923), including classics and Christian theology under Romano Guardini, enabling her to successfully sit the entrance examination (Abitur) for the University of Marburg.[42] There she studied classical languages, German literature, Protestant theology with Rudolf Bultmann and philosophy with Nicolai Hartmann and Martin Heidegger (1924–1926).[43] The 17-year-old Arendt began a long and problematic romantic relationship with the 35-year-old Heidegger,[44] who was married with two young sons.[45] Arendt later faced criticism for this because of Heidegger's support for the Nazi Party after being elected rector at the University of Freiburg in 1933. Nevertheless, he remained one of the most profound influences on her thinking.[46] The details of the relationship remained a secret until Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At that time, Arendt and Heidegger had died, but Heidegger's wife Elfride Petri (1893–1992) was still alive, but was not well known till 1995, when Elzbieta Ettinger gained access to the sealed correspondence[47] and published a controversial account that was used by Arendt's detractors to cast doubt on her integrity. That account was subsequently refuted.[48][49]

At Marburg, Arendt lived at Lutherstrasse 4.[50] Among her friends there was Hans Jonas, her only Jewish classmate. Another fellow student of Heidegger's was Jonas' fiend, the Jewish philosopher Gunther Siegmund Stern (1902–1992)  son of the noted psychologist Ludwig Wilhelm Stern  who would later become her first husband.[51] Stern had completed his doctoral dissertation with Edmund Husserl at Freiburg University, and was now working on his Habilitation thesis with Heidegger, but Arendt, involved with Heidegger, took little notice of him at the time.[52]

After a year at Marburg, Arendt spent a semester at Freiburg, attending the lectures of Husserl.[8] In 1926 she moved to the University of Heidelberg, where in 1929, she completed her dissertation under the other leading figure of the then new and revolutionary Existenzphilosophie,[36] Karl Jaspers (1883–1969), a friend of Heidegger's.[31] Her thesis was entitled Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation ("On the concept of love in the thought of Saint Augustine: Attempt at a philosophical interpretation").[53] She remained a lifelong friend of Jaspers and his wife, Gertrud Mayer (1879–1974), developing a deep intellectual relationship with him.[54] At Heidelberg, her circle of friends included Hans Jonas, who had also moved from Marburg to study Augustine, working on his Augustin und das paulinische Freiheitsproblem. Ein philosophischer Beitrag zur Genesis der christlich-abendländischen Freiheitsidee (1930),[lower-alpha 4] and also a group of three young philosophers: Karl Frankenstein, Erich Neumann and Erwin Loewenson.[55] Other friends and students of Jaspers were the linguists Benno von Wiese and Hugo Friedrich (seen with Hannah, here), with whom she attended lectures by Friedrich Gundolf at Jaspers' suggestion. She also became reacquainted with Kurt Blumenfeld, at a lecture, who introduced her to Jewish politics. At Heidelberg, she lived in the old town (Altstadt) near the castle, at Schlossberg 16. The house was demolished in the 1960s, but the one remaining wall bears a plaque commemorating her time there (see image).[56]

Arendt at Heidelberg 1926–1929
Photo of Hannah with student friends at the university at Heildelberg in 1928
Hannah Arendt (2nd from right), Benno von Wiese (far right), Hugo Friedrich (2nd from left) and friend at Heidelberg University 1928
Plaque on house where Hannah lived at Heidelberg
Plaque marking Arendt's residence in Heidelberg

On completing her dissertation, Hannah Arendt turned to her Habilitationsschrift, initially on German Romanticism,[57] and hence an academic teaching career. However 1929 was also the year of the Depression and the end of the golden years (Goldene Zwanziger) of the Weimar Republic, which was to become increasingly unstable over its remaining four years. Arendt, as a Jew, had little if any chance of obtaining an academic appointment in Germany.[58] Nevertheless, she completed most of the work before she was forced to leave Germany.[59]

Career

Germany (1929–1933)

Berlin-Potsdam (1929)

Photo of Günther Stern with Hannah Arendt in 1929
Günther Stern and Hannah Arendt in 1929

In 1929, Hannah met Günther Stern again, this time in Berlin at a New Year's masked ball,[60] and began a relationship with him.[lower-alpha 5][31][51] Within a month she had moved in with him in a one-room studio, shared with a dancing school in Berlin-Halensee. Then they moved to Merkurstrasse 3, Nowawes,[61] in Potsdam[62] and were married there on September 26.[lower-alpha 6][64] They had much in common and the marriage was welcomed by both sets of parents.[52] In the summer, Hannah Arendt successfully applied to the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft for a grant to support her Habilitation, which was supported by Heidegger and Jaspers among others, and in the meantime, with Günther's help was working on revisions to get her dissertation published.[65]

Wanderjahre (1929–1931)

After she and Günther were married they began two years of what Christian Dries refers to as the Wanderjahre (years of wandering). They had the ultimately fruitless aim of having Günther accepted for an academic appointment.[66] They lived for a while in Drewitz,[67] a southern neighborhood of Potsdam, before moving to Heidelberg, where they lived with the Jaspers. After Heidelberg, where Günther completed the first draft of his Habilitation thesis, the Sterns then moved to Frankfurt where Günther hoped to finish it. There, Arendt participated in the university's intellectual life, attending lectures by Karl Mannheim and Paul Tillich, among others.[68] The Sterns collaborated intellectually, writing an article together on Rilke's Duino Elegies (1923)[69] and both reviewing Mannheim's Ideologie und Utopie (1929).[70] This was Arendt's sole contribution in sociology.[71][52][51] Arendt also published an article on Augustine (354–430) in the Frankfurter Zeitung[72] to mark the fifteen hundredth anniversary of his death. She saw this article as forming a bridge between her treatment of Augustine in her dissertation and her subsequent work on Romanticism.[73][74] It became evident Stern would not succeed in obtaining an appointment,[lower-alpha 7] and the Sterns returned to Berlin in 1931.[22]

Return to Berlin (1931–1933)

Photo of Hannah in 1933
Hannah 1933

In Berlin, where they initially lived in the predominantly Jewish area of Bayerisches Viertel (Bavarian Quarter or "Jewish Switzerland") in Schöneberg,[75][76] Stern obtained a position as a staff-writer for the cultural supplement of the Berliner Börsen-Courier, edited by Herbert Ihering, with the help of Bertold Brecht. There he started writing using the nom-de-plume of Günther Anders, i.e. "Günther Other".[lower-alpha 8][51] Hannah assisted Günther with his work, but the shadow of Heidegger hung over their relationship. While Günther was working on his Habilitationsschrift, Hannah had abandoned the original subject of German Romanticism for her thesis in 1930, and turned instead to Rahel Varnhagen and the question of assimilation.[78][57] Back in Berlin, Arendt found herself becoming more involved in politics and started studying political theory, and reading Marx and Trotsky, while developing contacts at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik.[79] Despite the political leanings of her mother and husband she never saw herself as a political leftist, justifying her activism as being through her Jewishness.[80] Her increasing interest in Jewish politics and her examination of assimilation in her study of Varnhagen led her to publish her first article on Judaism, Aufklärung und Judenfrage ("The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question", 1932).[81][82] Blumenfeld had introduced her to the "Jewish question", which would be his lifelong concern.[83] Meanwhile, her views on German Romanticism were evolving. She wrote a review of Hans Weil's Die Entstehung des deutschen Bildungsprinzips (The Origin of German Educational Principle, 1930),[84] which dealt with the emergence of Bildungselite (educational elite) in the time of Rahel Varnhagen.[85] At the same time she began to be occupied by Max Weber's description of the status of Jewish people within a state as pariavolk (pariah people) in his Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (1922),[86][87] while borrowing Bernard Lazare's term paria conscient (conscious pariah)[88] with which she identified.[lower-alpha 9][90][89][91] In both these articles she advanced the views of Johann Herder.[82] Another interest of hers at the time was the status of women, resulting in her 1932 review[92] of Alice Rühle-Gerstel's book Das Frauenproblem in der Gegenwart. Eine psychologische Bilanz (Contemporary Women's Issues: A psychological balance sheet).[93] Although not a supporter of the women's movement, the review was sympathetic. At least in terms of the status of women at that time, she was skeptical of the movement's ability to achieve political change.[94] She was also critical of the movement, because it was a women's movement, rather than contributing with men to a political movement, abstract rather than striving for concrete goals. In this manner she echoed Rosa Luxemburg. Like Luxemburg, she would later criticize Jewish movements for the same reason. Arendt consistently prioritized political over social questions.[95]

By 1932, faced with a deteriorating political situation, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings. She wrote, asking him to deny that he was attracted to National Socialism. Heidegger replied that he did not seek to deny the rumors (which were true), and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged.[28] As a Jew in Nazi Germany, Arendt was prevented from making a living and discriminated against and confided to Anne Mendelssohn that emigration was probably inevitable. By 1933, life for the Jewish population in Germany was becoming precarious. Adolf Hitler became Bundeskanzler (Chancellor) in January, and the Reichstag was burned down (Reichstagsbrand) the following month. This led to the suspension of civil liberties, with attacks on the left, and, in particular, members of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (German Communist Party: KPD). Stern, who had communist associations, fled to Paris, but Arendt stayed on to become an activist. Knowing her time was limited, she used the apartment at Opitzstrasse 6 in Berlin-Steglitz that she had occupied with Stern since 1932 as an underground railway way-station for fugitives. Her rescue operation there is now recognized with a plaque on the wall (see image).[96][97]

Plaque on the wall at Hannah's apartment building on Opitzstrasse, commemorating her
Memorial at Opitzstrasse 6

That Spring, came the beginnings of anti-Jewish laws and boycott. Confronted with systemic antisemitism, Arendt adopted the motiv "If one is attacked as a Jew one must defend oneself as a Jew. Not as a German, not as a world citizen, not as an upholder of the Rights of Man."[98][36] This was Arendt's introduction of the concept of Jew as Pariah that would occupy her for the rest of her life in her Jewish writings.[99] She took a public position by publishing part of her largely completed biography of Rahel Varnhagen as "Originale Assimilation: Ein Nachwort zu Rahel Varnhagen 100 Todestag" ("Original Assimilation: An Epilogue to the One Hundredth Anniversary of Rahel Varnhagen's Death") in the Kölnische Zeitung on March 7, 1933 and a little later also in Jüdische Rundschau.[lower-alpha 10][58] In the article she argues that the age of assimilation that began with Varnhagen's generation had come to an end with an official state policy of antisemitism. She opened with the declaration:

Today in Germany it seems Jewish assimilation must declare its bankruptcy. The general social antisemitism and its official legitimation affects in the first instance assimilated Jews, who can no longer protect themselves through baptism or by emphasizing their differences from Eastern Judaism.[lower-alpha 11][102]

As a Jew, she was anxious to inform the world of what was happening to her people in 1930–1933.[36] She surrounded herself with Zionist activists, including Kurt Blumenfeld, Martin Buber and Salman Schocken, and started to research antisemitism. Arendt had access to the Prussian State Library for her work on Varnhagen. Blumenfeld's Zionistische Vereinigung für Deutschland (Zionist Federation of Germany) persuaded her to use this access to obtain evidence of the extent of antisemitism, for a planned speech to the Zionist Congress in Prague. This research was illegal at the time.[103] Her actions led to her being denounced by a librarian for anti-state propaganda, resulting in the arrest of both Hannah and her mother by the Gestapo. They served eight days in prison but her notebooks were in code and could not be deciphered, and she was released by a young, sympathetic arresting officer to await trial.[22][43][104]

Exile: France (1933–1941)

Paris (1933–1940)

On release, realizing the danger she was now in, Arendt and her mother fled Germany[22] following the established escape route over the Erzgebirge Mountains by night into Czechoslovakia and on to Prague and then by train Geneva. In Geneva, she made a conscious decision to commit herself to "the Jewish cause". She obtained work with a friend of her mother's at the League of Nations' Jewish Agency for Palestine, distributing visas and writing speeches.[105]

From Geneva they traveled to Paris in the autumn, where she was reunited with Stern, joining a stream of refugees.[106] While Arendt had left Germany without papers, her mother had travel documents and returned to Königsberg and her husband.[105] In Paris, she befriended Stern's cousin, the Marxist literary critic and philosopher, Walter Benjamin (1892–1940) and also the Jewish philosopher Raymond Aron (1905–1983).[106]

Hannah Arendt was now an émigré, an exile, stateless, without papers, and had turned her back on the Germany and Germans of the Nazizeit.[36] Her legal status was precarious and she was coping with a foreign language and culture, all of which took its toll on her mentally and physically.[107] In 1934 she started working for the Zionist funded outreach program Agriculture et Artisanat,[108] giving lectures, and organizing clothing, documents, medications and education for Jewish youth seeking to emigrate to the British Mandate of Palestine, mainly as agricultural workers. Initially she was employed as a secretary, and then office manager. To improve her skills she studied French, Hebrew and Yiddish. In this way she was able to support herself and her husband.[109] When the organization closed in 1935, her work for Blumenfeld and the Zionists in Germany brought her into contact with the wealthy philanthropist Baroness Germaine Alice de Rothschild (born Halphen, 1884–1975),[110] wife of Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild, becoming her assistant. In this position she oversaw the baroness' contributions to Jewish charities through the Paris Consistoire, although she had little time for the family as a whole.[105] The Rothschilds had headed the central Consistoire for a century but stood for everything Arendt did not, opposing immigration and any connection with German Jewry.[106][111]

Later in 1935 she joined a group similar to Agriculture et Artisanat, Youth Aliyah (Youth immigration),[lower-alpha 12] an organization founded in Berlin on the day Hitler seized power and affiliated with Hadassah.[112][113] These organizations saved many from the holocaust.[114][115][22] There she eventually became Secretary-General (1935–1939).[11][106] Her work with Youth Aliyah also involved finding food, clothing, social workers and lawyers, but above all, fund raising.[43] She made her first visit to Israel in 1935, accompanying one of these groups, and meeting with her cousin Ernst Fürst, there.[lower-alpha 13][107] With the Nazi annexation of Austria and invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938, Paris was flooded with refugees, and she became the special agent for the rescue of the children from those countries.[11]

In Paris, she also met the self-educated Berlin poet and Marxist philosopher, Heinrich Blücher (1899–1970), in 1936.[22][117] Blücher had been a Spartacist and then a founding member of the KPD but had been expelled due to his work in the Versöhnler (Conciliator faction).[83] Although she had rejoined Stern in 1933, their marriage existed in name only, having separated in Berlin. She fulfilled her social obligations and used the name Hannah Stern, but the relationship effectively ended when Stern, perhaps recognizing the danger better than her, emigrated to America with his parents in 1936.[107] In 1937, she was stripped of her German citizenship and she and Günther Stern divorced that year. She had begun seeing more of Blücher, and eventually they began living together. It was Blücher's long political activism that began to move Arendt's thinking towards political action.[83] In 1938, she completed her biography of Rahel Varnhagen,[30][118][119] although this was not published till 1958.[120][22] In April 1939, following the horrors of Kristallnacht (November 1938), Martha Beerwald realized her daughter would not return and made the difficult decision to leave her husband and join Hannah in Paris. One stepdaughter had died and the other had moved to England, Martin Beerwald would not leave and she no longer had any close ties to Königsberg.[121] Hannah and Blücher married on January 16, 1940, shortly after their respective divorces were finalized.[122]

Internment and escape (1940–1941)

Memorial plaque at Camp Gurs to al who were detained there
Memorial at Camp Gurs

On May 5, 1940, in anticipation of the Germany invasion of France and the Low Countries that month, the Gouverneur général of Paris issued a proclamation ordering all "enemy aliens" between 17 and 55, who had come from Germany (predominantly Jews) to report separately for internment. The women were gathered together in the Vélodrome d'Hiver on May 15. Hannah's mother, being over 55 was allowed to stay in Paris. She described the process of making refugees as "the new type of human being created by contemporary history...put into concentration camps by their foes and into internment camps by their friends".[122] [123] The men, including Heinrich Blücher, were sent to Camp Vernet in southern France, close to the Spanish border. Arendt and the other women were sent to Camp Gurs, to the west of Gurs, a week later. The camp had originally been set up to accommodate refugees from Spain. On June 22, France capitulated and signed the Compiègne armistice, dividing the country. Gurs was in the southern Vichy controlled section. In the ensuing chaos she managed to obtain liberation papers enabling her to leave the camp, with about 200 of the 7,000 women held there, about four weeks later.[124] There was no Résistance then, but she managed to walk and hitchhike north to Montauban,[lower-alpha 14] near Toulouse where she knew she would find help.[123][125]

Montauban had become an unofficial capital for former detainees,[lower-alpha 15] and her friend Lotta Sempell Klembort was staying there. Heinrich's camp had been evacuated in the wake of the German advance, and he managed to escape from a forced march and he had also managed to make his way to Montauban, where the two of them led a fugitive life. Soon they were joined by Anne Mendelssohn and Hannah's mother. Escape from France was extremely difficult without official papers, and their friend Walter Benjamin had taken his own life, after being apprehended trying to escape to Spain. One of the best known illegal routes operated out of Marseilles, where Varian Fry, an American journalist worked to raise funds, forge papers and bribe officials with Hiram Bingham, the American vice-consul there. They secured exit papers and American visas for thousands, and with help from her first husband, Günther Stern, Hannah, her husband and mother managed to secure the requisite permits to travel by train through Spain to Lisbon, Portugal. There, they eventually secured a passage to New York with her mother in April 1941. A few months later Fry's operations were shut down and the borders sealed.[127][128]

New York

Upon arriving in New York, Arendt became active in the German-Jewish community. From 1941 to 1945, she wrote a political column for the New York German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau, writing on anti-semitism, refugees and the need for a Jewish army. She also wrote for other German émigré publications and became an editor at Schocken Books,[lower-alpha 16] which later published a number of her works.[130][22] Beginning in 1944, she was the director of research and Executive Director for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, and in that capacity traveled to Europe after the war.[131][132][133] In 1948 she became engaged with the campaign of Judah Magnes for a two-state solution in Palestine.[83] Together with her husband, she lived at 370 Riverside Drive in New York and at Kingston, New York, where Blücher taught at nearby Bard College for many years.[22][134]

Post-war

Photo of Hannah and Heinrich Blücher in New York in 1950
Hannah Arendt with Heinrich Blücher, New York 1950

In the 1950s Arendt wrote some of her most important works, including The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951),[135] The Human Condition (1958)[136] and On Revolution (1963).[137][22] Arendt began corresponding with the American author Mary McCarthy, six years her junior, in 1950 and they soon became lifelong friends.[138][139] In 1950, Arendt also became a naturalized citizen of the United States.[140] The same year, she started seeing Martin Heidegger again, and had what the American writer Adam Kirsch called a "quasi-romance," that lasted for two years, with the man who had previously been her mentor, teacher, and lover.[28] During this time, Arendt defended him against critics who noted his enthusiastic membership in the Nazi party. She portrayed Heidegger as a naïve man swept up by forces beyond his control, and pointed out that Heidegger's philosophy had nothing to do with National Socialism.[28] Her work was recognized by many awards including the Danish Sonning Prize in 1975 for Contributions to European Civilization.[36]

Teaching

Photo of Hannah Arendt lecturing in Germany, 1955
Hannah Arendt lecturing in Germany, 1955

Arendt taught at many institutions of higher learning from 1951 onwards, but preserving her independence, consistently refused tenure-track positions. She served as a visiting scholar at the University of Notre Dame, University of California, Berkeley, Princeton University (where she was the first woman to be appointed a full professor in 1959), and Northwestern University. She also taught at the University of Chicago from 1963 to 1967, where she was a member of the Committee on Social Thought, The New School in Manhattan where she taught as a university professor from 1967 until her death in 1975,[141] Yale University, where she was a fellow, as well as the Center for Advanced Studies at Wesleyan University (1961–62, 1962–63).[22][142] She was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1962[143] and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1964.[144] At the time of her death, she was University Professor of Political Philosophy at the New School.[134]

In 1974, Arendt was instrumental in the creation of Structured Liberal Education (SLE) at Stanford University. She wrote a letter to the president of Stanford to persuade the university to enact Mark Mancall's vision of a residentially-based humanities program.[134]

Relationships

In addition to her affair with Heidegger, and her two marriages, Hannah Arendt had a number of close friendships. Since her death, her correspondence (see) with many of them has been published, revealing much useful information as to her thinking, and to her friends she was both loyal and generous, dedicating a number of her works to them.[145] Freundschaft (friendship), she described as being one of "tätigen Modi des Lebendigseins" (the active modes of being alive), [146] and to her, friendship was central both to her life and to the concept of politics.[147][145] Hans Jonas described her as having a "genius for friendship", and in her words, "der Eros der Freundschaft" (love of friendship).[148][145] Her philosophical friendships were male and European, her later American friendships more diverse, literary and political. Although she became an American citizen in 1950, her cultural roots remained European, and her language remained her German "Muttersprache",[149] and she surrounded herself with German speaking émigrés, sometimes referred to as "The Tribe". To her, wirkliche Menschen (real people) were "pariahs", not in the sense of outcasts, but in the sense of outsiders, unassimilated, with the virtue of "social nonconformism...the sine qua non of intellectual achievement", a sentiment she shared with Jaspers.[150]

Hannah Arendt always had a beste Freundin. In her teens she had formed a lifelong relationship with her Jugendfreundin, Anne Mendelssohn Weil ("Annchen"). On emigrating to America, Hilde Frankel, Paul Tillich's secretary and mistress, filled that role till her death in 1950. After the war Arendt was able to return to Germany and renew her relationship with Anne, who made several visits to New York, especially after Heinrich Blücher's death in 1970. Their last meeting was in Tegna, Switzerland in 1975, shortly before Hannah's death.[151] With Hilde's death, Mary McCarthy became her closest friend and confidante.[41][152][153]

Final illness and death

Hannah Arendt's grave at Bard College Cemetery, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York

While Heinrich Blücher had survived a cerebral aneurysm in 1961, he remained unwell after 1963, sustaining a series of heart attacks, but on October 31, 1970 he died of a massive heart attack, leaving Arendt alone. She had previously told Mary McCarthy "Life without him would be unthinkable".[154] Hannah Arendt was also a heavy smoker and was frequently depicted with a cigarette in her hand. She sustained a near fatal heart attack while lecturing in Scotland in May 1974 and although she recovered she remained in poor health afterwards, and continued to smoke.[155] On the evening of December 4, 1975, shortly after her 69th birthday, she had a further heart attack in her apartment while entertaining friends, and was pronounced dead at the scene.[156] Her ashes were buried alongside those of Blücher at Bard College, in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York in May 1976.[157][134]

After her death the title page of the final part of The Life of the Mind (Judging) was found in her typewriter, which she had just started, consisting of the title and two epigraphs. This has subsequently been reproduced (see image).[158]

Work

Arendt wrote works on intellectual history as a philosopher, using events and actions to develop insights into contemporary totalitarian movements and the threat to human freedom presented by scientific abstraction and bourgeois morality. Intellectually, she was an independent thinker, a loner not a "joiner", separating herself from schools of thought or ideology.[159] In addition to her major texts she published a number of anthologies, including Between Past and Future (1961),[160] Men in Dark Times (1968)[161] and Crises of the Republic (1972).[162] She also contributed to many publications, including The New York Review of Books, Commonweal, Dissent and The New Yorker.[22] She is perhaps best known for her accounts of Adolf Eichmann and his trial,[163] because of the intense controversy that it generated.[164] She was also a minor poet, but she kept this very private.[37][165][166]

Political theory and philosophical system

While Arendt never developed a coherent political theory and her writing does not easily lend itself to categorization, the tradition of thought most closely identified with Arendt is that of civic republicanism, from Aristotle to Toqueville. Her political concept is centered around active citizenship which emphasizes civic engagement and collective deliberation.[8] She believed that no matter how bad, government could never succeed in extinguishing human freedom, despite observing how modern societies frequently retreat from democratic freedom with its inherent disorder for the relative comfort of administrative bureaucracy. Her political legacy is her powerful defense of freedom in the face of an increasingly less than free world.[22] Nor does she adhere to a single systematic philosophy, but rather spans a range of subjects covering totalitarianism, revolution, the nature of freedom and the faculties of thought and judgment.[6]

While she is best known for her work on "dark times",[lower-alpha 17] the nature of totalitarianism and evil, she always imbued this with a spark of hope and confidence in the nature of mankind:[169]

That even in the darkest of times we have the right to expect some illumination, and that such illumination might well come less from theories and concepts than from the uncertain, flickering, and often weak light that some men and women, in their lives and their works, will kindle under almost all circumstances and shed over the time span that was given to them.[170]

Love and Saint Augustine (1929)

Arendt's doctoral thesis Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin. Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation[53] (Love and Saint Augustine)[171] was published in 1929 and attracted critical interest. Although an English translation had been prepared by E B Ashton[lower-alpha 18] in the early 1960s, Arendt did not want it published without revising it and adding new material. Although she prepared several manuscripts, she ultimately abandoned the task and it was not published in English till 1996. In this, she combines approaches of both Heidegger and Jaspers, and already some of the leitmotifs of her canon were apparent. For instance, she introduced the concept of Natalität (Natality), as a key condition of human existence and its role in the development of the individual. She made clear, in her revisions to the English translation, through explicit reference, that it was "natality" which she was introducing,[171][173][174] and would develop further in The Human Condition (1958).[136][175] Although she did not specifically use the word Natalität in the original German version, she explained that the construct natality was implied in her discussion of new beginnings and man's elation to the Creator as nova creatura.[176][177] The centrality of the theme of birth and renewal is apparent in the constant reference to Augustinian thought, and specifically the innovative nature of birth, from this, her first work to her last, The Life of the Mind.[178]

The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)

Arendt's first major book, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951),[135] examined the roots of Communism and Nazism. The book is structured as three essays, Antisemitism, Imperialism and Totalitarianism. In this book, Arendt argues that totalitarianism was a "novel form of government," that "differs essentially from other forms of political oppression known to us such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship"[179] in that it applied terror to subjugate mass populations rather than just political adversaries.[180][181] The book was opposed by some on the left on the grounds that it presented the two movements as equally tyrannical.[182] She further contends that Jewry was not the operative factor in the Holocaust, but merely a convenient proxy. That totalitarianism in Germany was, in the end, about terror and consistency, not eradicating Jews only.[183][181]

A second, enlarged edition was published in 1958, and contains a chapter (14) dealing with the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, entitled Epilogue: Reflections on the Hungarian Revolution. Subsequent editions omitted this chapter, which was published separately in English (Totalitarian Imperialism: Reflections on the Hungarian Revolution)[184] and German (Die ungarische Revolution und der totalitäre Imperialismus)[185] in 1958.[186]

The Human Condition (1958)

In what is arguably her most influential work, The Human Condition (1958),[136] Arendt differentiates political and social concepts, labor and work, and various forms of actions; she then explores the implications of those distinctions. Her theory of political action, corresponding to the existence of a public realm, is extensively developed in this work. Arendt argues that, while human life always evolves within societies, the social part of human nature, political life, has been intentionally realized in only a few societies as a space for individuals to achieve freedom. Conceptual categories, which attempt to bridge the gap between ontological and sociological structures, are sharply delineated. While Arendt relegates labor and work to the realm of the social, she favors the human condition of action as that which is both existential and aesthetic.[8]

Arendt had first introduced the concept of "natality" in her Love and Saint Augustine (1929)[53] and in The Human Condition starts to develop this further. In this, she departs from Heidegger's emphasis on mortality. Arendt's positive message is one of the miracle of beginning, the continual arrival of the new to create action, that is to alter the state of affairs brought about by previous actions.[187] Natality would go on to become a central concept of her political theory, and also its most optimistic one.[175]

Between Past and Future (1961)

Between Past and Future is an anthology of six essays written between 1954 and 1961, and later expanded, and deals with a variety of different philosophical subjects including freedom, education, authority, tradition, history and politics. The essays share the central idea that humans are living between the past and the uncertain future. They must permanently think to exist, and each man is required to learn thinking. For a long time humans have resorted to tradition, but in modern times, this tradition has been abandoned, there is no more respect for tradition and culture. In these essays, Arendt tries to find solutions to help humans think again today. According to her, there is no way to live again with tradition, and modern philosophy has not succeeded in helping humans to live correctly.[160]

On Revolution (1963)

Arendt's book On Revolution[137] presents a comparison of two of the main revolutions of the eighteenth century, the American and French Revolutions. She goes against a common view of both Marxist and leftist views when she argues that France, while well studied and often emulated, was a disaster and that the largely ignored American Revolution was a success. The turning point in the French Revolution occurred when the leaders rejected their goals of freedom in order to focus on compassion for the masses. In the United States, the founders never betray the goal of Constitutio Libertatis. Arendt believes the revolutionary spirit of those men had been lost, however, and advocates a "council system" as an appropriate institution to regain that spirit.[188]

Men in Dark Times (1968)

The anthology of essays, Men in Dark Times, presents intellectual biographies of some creative and moral figures of the twentieth century, such as Walter Benjamin, Karl Jaspers, Rosa Luxemburg, Hermann Broch, Pope John XXIII, and Isak Dinesen.[161]

Crises of the Republic (1972)

Crises of the Republic[162] was the third of Arendt's anthologies, and as the subtitle Lying in Politics, Civil Disobedience, On Violence, Thoughts on Politics and Revolution indicates, consists of four interconnected essays on contemporary American politics and the crises it faced in the 1960s and 1970s. The first essay, "Lying in Politics" looks for an explanation behind the administration's deception regarding the Vietnam War, as revealed in the Pentagon Papers. "Civil Disobedience" examines the opposition movements, while the final "Thoughts on Politics and Revolution" is a commentary, in the form of an interview on the third essay, "On Violence".[162][189]

"On Violence"

"On Violence", the third of these essays, distinguishes between violence and power. Arendt maintains that, although theorists of both the left and right regard violence as an extreme manifestation of power, the two concepts are, in fact, antithetical. Power comes from the collective will and does not need violence to achieve any of its goals, since voluntary compliance takes its place. As governments start losing their legitimacy, violence becomes an artificial means toward the same end and is, therefore, found only in the absence of power. Bureaucracies then become the ideal birthplaces of violence since they are defined as the "rule by no one" against whom to argue and, therefore, recreate the missing links with the people they rule over.[189]

Posthumous publications

The Life of the Mind (1978)

Arendt's last major work, The Life of the Mind[190] remained incomplete at the time of her death. During Arendt's tenure at the New School, in 1974, she presented a graduate level political philosophy class entitled, Philosophy of the Mind. It was during these class lectures that Arendt crystallized her concepts. The class was based on her working draft of Philosophy of the Mind, which was later edited to Life of the Mind. Arendt's working draft of Philosophy of the Mind was distributed to graduate students at the New School during her visiting professorship in 1974. She conceived of a trilogy based on the mental activities of thinking, willing, and judging. Stemming from her Gifford Lectures at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland (1972–1974),[191] her last writing focused on the first two. In a sense, Life of the Mind went beyond her previous work concerning the vita activa. In her discussion of thinking, she focuses mainly on Socrates and his notion of thinking as a solitary dialogue between oneself. This appropriation of Socrates leads her to introduce novel concepts of conscience—an enterprise that gives no positive prescriptions, but instead, tells one what I cannot do if I would remain friends with myself when I re-enter the two-in-one of thought where I must render an account of my actions to myself—and morality—an entirely negative enterprise concerned with forbidding participation in certain actions for the sake of remaining friends with oneself. She died suddenly five days after completing the second part, with the first page of Judging, still in her typewriter. The task then fell to McCarthy to edit the first two parts and provide some indication of the direction of the third.[192][193]

Although Arendt's exact intentions in the third part are unknown, she did leave manuscripts (such as Thinking and Moral Considerations and Some Questions on Moral Philosophy) and lectures (Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy) concerning her thoughts on the mental faculty of Judging. The first two articles were edited and published in an anthology (Responsibility and Judgement) by Jerome Kohn, one of Arendt's assistants and a director of the Hannah Arendt Center at The New School in New York, in 2003.[194] The last was edited and published by Ronald Beiner, professor of political science at the University of Toronto, in 1982.[195]

Collected works

After Hannah Arendt's death a number of her essays and notes have continued to be edited and published posthumously by friends and colleagues, including those that give some insight into the unfinished third part of The Life of the Mind.[130] The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age (1978),[196] is a collection of 15 essays and letters from the period 1943–1966 on the situation of Jews in modern times, to try and throw some light on her views on the Jewish world, following the backlash to Eichmann, but proved to be equally polarizing.[197][198] A further collection of her writings on being Jewish was published as The Jewish Writings (2007).[199][200] Other work includes the collection of forty, largely fugitive,[lower-alpha 19] essays, addresses, and reviews entitled Essays in Understanding 1930–1934: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism (1994),[201] that presaged her monumental The Origins of Totalitarianism,[135] in particular On the Nature of Totalitarianism (1953) and The Concern with Politics in Contemporary European Philosophical Thought (1954).[202] The remaining essays were published as Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953-1975 (2018).[203] Her notebooks which form a series of memoirs, were published as Denktagebuch in 2002.[204][205]

Correspondence

Some further insight into her thinking is provided in the continuing posthumous publication of her correspondence with many of the important figures in her life, including Karl Jaspers (1992),[54] Mary McCarthy (1995),[139] Heinrich Blücher (1996),[206] Martin Heidegger (2004),[lower-alpha 20][207], Alfred Kazin (2005),[208] Walter Benjamin (2006),[209] Gershom Scholem (2011)[210] and Günther Stern (2016).[211] Other correspondence that has been published, include those with a number of women friends such as Hilde Fränkel and Anne Mendelsohn Weil (see Relationships).[212] [209]

Arendt and the Eichmann trial (1961–1963)

On hearing of Adolf Eichmann's capture and plans for his trial, Hannah Arendt contacted The New Yorker and offered to travel to Israel to cover it. The offer was accepted and in her subsequent reporting of the 1961 trial in 1963,[213] which evolved into the book Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (1963),[163] Arendt was critical of the way the trial was conducted in Israel and coined the phrase "the banality of evil" to describe the phenomenon of Eichmann. She examined the question of whether evil is radical or simply a function of thoughtlessness, a tendency of ordinary people to obey orders and conform to mass opinion without a critical evaluation of the consequences of their actions. Arendt's argument was that Eichmann was not a monster, contrasting the immensity of his actions with the very ordinariness of the man himself. Eichmann, she stated, not only called himself a Zionist, having initially opposed the Jewish persecution, but also expected his captors to understand him. She pointed out that his actions were not driven by malice, but rather blind dedication to the regime and his need to belong, to be a joiner. In his own words:

I sensed I would have to live a leaderless and difficult individual life, I would receive no directives from anybody, no orders and commands would any longer be issued to me, no pertinent ordinances would be there to consult—in brief, a life never known before lay ahead of me.[213]

What Arendt observed, during the trial was a bourgeois sales clerk, who found a meaningful role for himself and a sense of importance in the Nazi movement. She noted that his addiction to clichés and use of bureaucratic morality clouded his ability to question his actions, "to think". This led her to set out her most famous, and most debated, dictum "the lesson that this long course in human wickedness had taught us — the lesson of the fearsome, word-and-thought-defying banality of evil."[213][22]

Arendt was also critical of the way that some Jewish leaders associated with the Jewish Councils (Judenräte), notably M. C. Rumkowski, acted during the Holocaust, which she described as a moral catastrophe. While her argument was not to allocate blame, rather she mourns what she considered a moral failure of compromising the imperative that it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. She describes the cooperation of the Jewish leaders in terms of a disintegration of Jewish morality "this role of the Jewish leaders in the destruction of their own people is undoubtedly the darkest chapter in the whole dark story". Widely, misunderstood, this caused an even greater controversy and particularly animosity toward her in the Jewish community and in Israel.[22]

No other book on either Eichmann or National Socialism has aroused so much controversy.[214] Arendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers "People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation...They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me". Her critics included The Anti-Defamation League and many other Jewish groups, editors of publications she was a contributor to, faculty at the universities she taught at and friends from all parts of her life.[215] Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar of Jewish mysticism, broke off relations with her. Arendt was criticized by many Jewish public figures, who charged her with coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Holocaust. Because of this lingering criticism neither this book nor any of her other works were translated into Hebrew, until 1999.[216] Arendt responded to the controversies in the book's Postscript;

The controversy began by calling attention to the conduct of the Jewish people during the years of the Final Solution, thus following up the question, first raised by the Israeli prosecutor, of whether the Jews could or should have defended themselves. I had dismissed that question as silly and cruel, since it testified to a fatal ignorance of the conditions at the time. It has now been discussed to exhaustion, and the most amazing conclusions have been drawn. The well-known historico-sociological construct of "ghetto mentality"… has been repeatedly dragged in to explain behavior which was not at all confined to the Jewish people and which therefore cannot be explained by specifically Jewish factors… This was the unexpected conclusion certain reviewers chose to draw from the "image" of a book, created by certain interest groups, in which I allegedly had claimed that the Jews had murdered themselves.[217]

Arendt ended the book by writing:

Just as you Eichmann supported and carried out a policy of not wanting to share the earth with the Jewish people and the people of a number of other nations—as though you and your superiors had any right to determine who should and who should not inhabit the world—we find that no one, that is, no member of the human race, can be expected to want to share the earth with you. This is the reason, and the only reason, you must hang.

Prior to Arendt's depiction of Eichmann, the popular image had been, as the New York Times put it "the most evil monster of humanity".[218] Roger Berkowitz, Director of the Hannah Arendt Center at Bard, states that Arendt neither defended Eichmann, nor denied that his actions were evil and that he was an anti-semite, nor that he should be executed for his actions. But rather that we should understand that those actions were neither monstrous, nor sadistic. In understanding Eichmann, Arendt argues, we come to understand a greater truth about the nature of evil, that individuals participate in atrocities from an inability to critically examine blind allegiance to ideologies that provide a sense of meaning in a lonely and alienating world. Thus, she concludes, thoughtless zealotry is the face of evil in the modern world.[22] Nor was Arendt alone in raising concerns about the role played by the Judenräte.[219]

Rejections of Arendt's characterization of Eichmann[220] and allegations of racism against her have persisted ever since,[221] though much of this is based on information that was not available at the time of the trial.[214] Issues around factual accuracy have been disputed, as well as whether Eichmann was merely dissembling. Irving Howe, one of her critics, described how the Eichmann issue engendered what approached "civil war" amongst New York intellectuals. Howe rightly surmised that "such controversies are never settled. They die down, simmer, and erupt again".[129] Thus the appearance of the 2012 film Hannah Arendt reignited the controversy. Berkowitz states that claiming Arendt exonerated Eichmann as simply a man who followed orders, is a misreading of the book. In fact she argued that Eichmann acted equally out of conviction, and even at times disobeyed orders, such as those of Himmler. Eichmann was, as Berkowitz states, "someone convinced that he was sacrificing an easy morality for a higher good".[222][223] What has emerged following this revisiting of the controversy, is a consensus that whether Arandt was right or wrong about Eichmann, she was correct about the nature of evil.[224][225][226]

Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen

Photo of the finance offices in Bolzano showing the fascist frieze and Hanna Arendt's words above it. In the square in front of the building, panels describe the project
Palazzo degli Uffici Finanziari, Bolzano with fascist mounment below, Arendt statement above and explicatory panels in the square in front

In an interview with Joachim Fest in 1964,[227] Arendt was asked about Eichmann's defense that he had made Kant's principle of duty his guiding principle all his life. Arendt replied that that was outrageous and that Eichmann was misusing Kant, by not considering the element of judgement required in assessing one's own actions - "Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen bei Kant" (No man has the right of obedience to Kant), she stated. The reference was to Kant's Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft (Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason 1793) in which he states:

Der Satz 'man muß Gott mehr gehorchen, als den Menschen' bedeutet nur, daß, wenn die letzten etwas gebieten, was an sich böse (dem Sittengesetz unmittelbar zuwider) ist, ihnen nicht gehorcht werden darf und soll[228] (The saying, "We must hearken to God, rather than to man," signifies no more than this, viz. that should any earthly legislation enjoin something immediately contradictory of the moral law, obedience is not to be rendered[229])

Kant clearly defines a higher moral duty than rendering merely unto Caesar. Arendt's reply was subsequently corrupted to read Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen (No one has the right to obey), which has been widely reproduced, although it does encapsulate an aspect of her moral philosophy.[130][230]

The phrase Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen has become one of her iconic images, appearing on the wall of the house in which she was born (see Commemorations ), among other places.[231] A fascist bas-relief on the Palazzo degli Uffici Finanziari (1942), in the Piazza del Tribunale,[lower-alpha 21] Bolzano, Italy celebrating Mussolini, read Credere, Obbedire, Combattere (Believe, Obey, Combat). In 2017 it was altered to read Hannah Arendt's words on obedience in the three official languages of the region.[lower-alpha 22][232]

The phrase has been appearing in other artistic work featuring political messages, such as the 2015 installation by Wilfried Gerstel, which has evoked the concept of resistance to dictatorship, as expressed in her essay "Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship" (1964).[98][233]

List of selected publications

Bibliographies

  • Heller, Anne C (23 July 2005b). "Selected Bibliography: A Life in Dark Times". Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  • Kohn, Jerome (2018). "Bibliographical Works". The Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities at Bard College. , in HAC Bard (2018)
  • Yanase, Yosuke (3 May 2008). "Hnnah Arendt's major works". Philosophical Investigations for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved 26 July 2018.

Books

  • Arendt, Hannah (1929). Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation [On the concept of love in the thought of Saint Augustine: Attempt at a philosophical interpretation] (PDF) (Doctoral thesis, Department of Philosophy, University of Heidelburg) (in German). Berlin: Springer. , Available in English as:
    • (1996). Scott, Joanna Vecchiarelli; Stark, Judith Chelius, eds. Love and Saint Augustine. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-02596-4.
    • Ludz, Ursula (20 May 2008). "Zwei neue Ausgaben von Hannah Arendts Dissertationsschrift". HannahArendt.net 4:1 (Review) (in German). Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  • (1997) [1938, published 1957]. Weissberg, Liliane, ed. Rahel Varnhagen: Lebensgeschichte einer deutschen Jüdin aus der Romantik [Rahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess] (Habilitation thesis). trans. English Richard and Clara Winston. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5587-0. 400 pages. (see Rahel Varnhagen)
    • Azria, Régine (1987). "Review of Rahel Varnhagen. La vie d'une juive allemande à l'époque du romantisme". Archives de sciences sociales des religions (Review). 32 (64.2): 233. ISSN 0335-5985. JSTOR 30129073.
    • Zohn, Harry (1960). "Review of Rahel Varnhagen. The Life of a Jewess". Jewish Social Studies. 22 (3): 180–181. ISSN 0021-6704. JSTOR 4465809.
    • Elon, Amos (18 February 1999). "A Fugitive from Egypt and Palestine". The New York Review of Books (Review). Retrieved 31 August 2018.
      • Weissberg, Liliane; Elon, Amos (10 June 1999). "Hannah Arendt's Integrity". The New York Review of Books (Editorial letters). Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  • (1976) [1951, New York: Schocken]. The Origins of Totalitarianism [Elemente und Ursprünge totaler Herrschaft] (revised ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-547-54315-4. , (see also The Origins of Totalitarianism and Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism) Full text (1979 edition) on Internet Archive
    • Riesman, David (1 April 1951). "The Origins of Totalitarianism, by Hannah Arendt". Commentary (Review). Retrieved 23 August 2018.
    • Nisbet, Robert (1992). "Arendt on Totalitarianism". The National Interest (Review) (27): 85–91.
  • (2013) [1958]. The Human Condition (Second ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-92457-1. (see also The Human Condition)
  • (1958). Die ungarische Revolution und der totalitäre Imperialismus (in German). München: R. Piper & Co Verlag.
  • (2006) [1961, New York: Viking]. Between Past and Future. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-66265-6. (see also Between Past and Future)
  • (2006) [1963, New York: Viking]. On Revolution. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-66264-9. (see also On Revolution) Full text on Internet Archive
  • (2006a) [1963, Viking Press, revised 1968]. Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-00716-7. Full text: 1964 edition (see also Eichmann in Jerusalem)
  • (1968). Men in Dark Times. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-658890-4.
    • Slonem, Marc (17 November 1968). "Men in Dark Times". New York Times Book Review (Review). p. 6.
  • (1972). Crises of the Republic: Lying in Politics, Civil Disobedience on Violence, Thoughts on Politics, and Revolution. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-623200-5. [lower-alpha 23]
    • Lying in Politics full text
    • Nott, Kathleen (1 August 1972). "Crises of the Republic, by Hannah Arendt". Commentary (Review). Retrieved 23 July 2018.

Articles and essays

  • Arendt, Hannah; Stern, Günther (1930). "Rilkes Duineser Elegien". Neue Schweizer Rundschau. 23: 855–871.
  • (12 April 1930). "Augustin und Protestantismus" [Augustine and Protestanism]. Frankfurter Zeitung (902). trans. Robert and Rita Kimber. p. 1. (reprinted in Arendt (2011, pp. 24–27))
  • (1930a). trans. Robert and Rita Kimber. "Philosophie und Soziologie. Anläßlich Karl Mannheims Ideologie und Utopie" [Philosophy and Sociology]. Die Gesellschaft. 7 (1): 163−176. (reprinted in Arendt (2011, pp. 28–43))
  • (1931). trans. Elisabeh Yopung-Bruehl. "Rezension von: Hans Weil: Die Entstehung des Deutschen Bildungsprinzips" [On the emancipation of women]. Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik (Review). 66: 200–205.
  • (1932). trans. John E. Woods. "Aufklärung und Judenfrage" [The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question]. Zeitschrift für die Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland. 4 (2/3): 65–77. (reprinted in Arendt (2009a, pp. 3–18)
  • (1932a). "Rezension über Alice Rühle-Gerstel: Das Frauenproblem in der Gegenwart. Eine psychologische Bilanz". Die Gesellschaft (in German). 10 (2): 177–179. (reprinted in Arendt (2011, pp. 66–68))
  • (1944). "The Jew as Pariah: A Hidden Tradition". Jewish Social Studies. 6 (2): 99–122. (reprinted in Arendt (2009a, pp. 275–297)
  • (1953). "Ideology and Terror: A Novel Form of Government". The Review of Politics. 15 (3): 303–327.
  • (1958). "Totalitarian Imperialism: Reflections on the Hungarian Revolution". The Journal of Politics. 20 (1): 5–43. doi:10.2307/2127387.
  • (Winter 1959). "Reflections on Little Rock" (PDF). Dissent. Vol. 6 no. 6. pp. 45–56. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  • (Spring 1959). "A reply to critics". Dissent. Vol. 6 no. 7. pp. 179–181. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  • (February–March 1963). "Eichmann in Jerusalem. 5 parts". The New Yorker. Retrieved 11 August 2018.
  • . "Contributions". New York Review of Books. Retrieved 11 August 2018.

Correspondence

  • Arendt, Hannah; Jaspers, Karl (1992). Köhler, Lotte; Saner, Hans, eds. Hannah Correspondence, 1926-1969. translated by Robert and Rita Kimber. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-107887-5.
  • Arendt, Hannah; Kazin, Alfred (February 2005). Mahrdt, Helgard, ed. "The correspondence between Hannah Arendt and Alfred Kazin". Samtiden. No. 1. pp. 107–154.
  • Arendt, Hannah; McCarthy, Mary (1995). Brightman, Carol, ed. Between friends: the correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Mary McCarthy, 1949-1975. Harcourt Brace. ISBN 978-0-15-100112-5.
  • Arendt, Hannah; Blücher, Heinrich (2000) [1996]. Kohler, Lotte, ed. Within Four Walls: The Correspondence Between Hannah Arendt and Heinrich Blücher, 1936-1968. translated by Peter Constantine. Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-15-100303-7.
    • Elon, Amos (5 July 2001). "Scenes from a Marriage". The New York Review of Books (Review). Retrieved 29 August 2018.
  • Arendt, Hannah; Heidegger, Martin (2004) [1999 Klostermann]. Ludz, Ursula, ed. Briefe 1925 bis 1975 und andere Zeugnisse [Letters, 1925-1975]. translated by Andrew Shields. New York: Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-15-100525-3.
    • Lilla, Mark (18 November 1999). "Ménage à Trois". The New York Review of Books (review).
  • Arendt, Hannah; Benjamin, Walter (2006). Schöttker, Detlev; Wizisla, Erdmut, eds. Arendt und Benjamin: Texte, Briefe, Dokumente (in German). Suhrkamp. ISBN 978-3-518-29395-9.
  • Arendt, Hannah; Anders, Günther (2016). Putz, Kerstin, ed. Schreib doch mal 'hard facts' über dich: Briefe 1939 bis 1975 (in German). C.H.Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-69911-5. (excerpts)
    • Magenau, Jörg (9 October 2016). "Die Geschiedenen: Die Frage ist, wie man überlebt: Der Briefwechsel zwischen Hannah Arendt und Günther Anders". Süddeutsche Zeitung (Review) (in German). Retrieved 12 September 2018.
  • Arendt, Hannah (2017). Ludz, Ursula; Nordmann, Ingeborg, eds. Wie ich einmal ohne Dich leben soll, mag ich mir nicht vorstellen: Briefwechsel mit den Freundinnen Charlotte Beradt, Rose Feitelson, Hilde Fränkel, Anne Weil-Mendelsohn und Helen Wolff (I do not like to imagine how I should live without you: correspondence with my friends) (in German). Piper ebooks. ISBN 978-3-492-97837-8.
  • Arendt, Hannah; Scholem, Gershom (2017) [2011]. Knott, Marie Louise, ed. The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Gershom Scholem. trans. Anthony David. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-92451-9.
    • Kirsch, Adam (5 February 2018). "A Shared Debt: The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Gershom Scholem". Tablet (Review).

Posthumous

  • Arendt, Hannah (1981) [1978]. McCarthy, Mary, ed. The Life of the Mind: The Groundbreaking Investigation on How We Think. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-547-54147-1. Online text at Pensar el Espacio Público
      • (1981) [1978]. McCarthy, Mary, ed. The Life of the Mind. Volume I: Thinking. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-651992-2.
      • Donoghue, Denis (Summer 1979). "Hannah Arendt's "The Life of the Mind"". The Hudson Review (Review). 32 (2): 281–288. doi:10.2307/3849978.
      • Mckenna, George (November 1978). "The Life of the Mind". The Journal of Politics (Review). 40 (4): 1086–1088. doi:10.2307/2129914.
  • (1978b). Feldman, Ron H, ed. The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-394-17042-8.
    • (1943). We refugees (PDF).
    • Botstein, Leon (1983). "The Jew as Pariah: Hannah Arendt's Political Philosophy". Dialectical Anthropology (Review). 8 (1/2): 47–73.
    • Budwig, Ernest. G. (1 January 1980). "The Jew As Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age. By Hannah Arendt. Edited by Ron Feldman. New York: Grove Press, 1978. 288 pp. $12.50 cloth; $6.95 paper". Journal of Church and State (Review). 22 (1): 165–165. doi:10.1093/jcs/22.1.165.
    • Dannhauser, Werner J. (1 January 1979). "The Jew as Pariah, by Hannah Arendt, edited by Ron H. Feldman". Commentary (Review).
  • (1992) [1982]. Beiner, Ronald, ed. Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-23178-5. Online text
  • (2002). Ludz, Ursula; Nordmann, Ingeborg, eds. Denktagebuch: 1950 bis 1973 (in German). Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-04429-5.
  • (January 2000). Baehr, Peter, ed. The Portable Hannah Arendt. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-026974-1. Full text on Internet Archive
  • (2011) [1994 Harcourt Brace & Company]. Kohn, Jerome, ed. Essays in Understanding, 1930-1954: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-78703-3. Full text on Internet Archive
    • ; Gaus, Günter (28 October 1964). Was bleibt? Es bleibt die Muttersprache. Günter Gaus im Gespräch mit Hannah Arendt ["What remains? The Language remains": An interview with Günter Gaus]. trans. Joan Stambaugh. pp. 1–23. (video and original German transcription)
    • (1930). Augustine and Protestanism. trans. Robert and Rita Kimber. pp. 24–27.
    • (1930). Philosophy and Sociology. trans. Robert and Rita Kimber. pp. 28–43. (also in translation by Clare McMillan and Volker Meja, in Meja & Stehr (2014, pp. 196–208)
    • (1932). On the emancipation of women. trans. Elisabeth Young-Bruehl. pp. 66–68.
    • Teichman, Jenny (April 1994). "Understanding Arendt". The New Criterion (Review). Retrieved 10 August 2018.
  • (2005). Ludz, Ursula, ed. Ich will verstehen: Selbstauskünfte zu Leben und Werk; mit einer vollständigen Bibliographie (in German). Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-24591-3.
  • (2007). Gottlieb, Susannah Young-ah, ed. Reflections on Literature and Culture. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4499-7.
  • (2009) [2003, Schocken]. Kohn, Jerome, ed. Responsibility and Judgment. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-54405-6.
    • (1964), Personal responsibility under dictatorship (PDF)
  • (2009) [2005 Schocken]. Kohn, Jerome, ed. The Promise of Politics. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-54287-8. , partly based on Was ist Politik? (1993), French translation as Qu'est-ce que la politique ?
    • (1993). Ludz, Ursula, ed. Was ist Politik?: Fragmente aus dem Nachlass (in German). Piper. (fragments)
    • (2001). Qu'est-ce que la politique ? (in French). trans. Carole Widmaier. Éditions du Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-048190-8. see also (extract)
  • (2009a) [2007 Schocken Books]. Kohn, Jerome; Feldman, Ron H, eds. The Jewish Writings. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-49628-7. Full text on Internet Archive and also at Pensar el Espacio Público
    • (1932). The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question. trans. John E. Woods. pp. 3–18.
    • (1944). The Jew as Pariah: A Hidden Tradition. pp. 275–297.
    • Butler, Judith (10 May 2007). "'I merely belong to them': The Jewish Writings by Hannah Arendt, edited by Jerome Kohn and Ron Feldman 2007". London Review of Books (Review). Vol. 29 no. 9. pp. 26–28. ISSN 0260-9592. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  • (2018). Kohn, Jerome, ed. Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953-1975. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-87030-3.

Collections

  • "The Hannah Arendt Papers". Library of Congress. 2001. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
    • Kohn, Jerome (2001). "Three Essays: The Role of Experience in Hannah Arendt's Political Thought".
  • "Hannah Arendt-Archiv" (in German). Institut für Philosophie: Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt (publications)". Internet Archive. Retrieved 13 October 2018.

Miscellaneous

  • Arendt, Hannah (2007). Fischer-Defoy, Christine, ed. Hannah Arendt: das private Adressbuch 1951-1975 (in German). Koehler & Amelang. ISBN 978-3-7338-0357-5.
    • Ludz, Ursula (May 2008). "Gut gestaltet, unterhaltsam, aber nicht zuverlässig – das kürzlich erschienene Arendt-Adressbuch". HannahArendt.net (Review) (in German). Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  • (2013a). Hannah Arendt: The Last Interview: And Other Conversations. Melville House. ISBN 978-1-61219-312-0.

Views

In 1961, while covering the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, Arendt wrote a letter to Karl Jaspers that Adam Kirsch described as reflecting "pure racism" toward Sephardic Jews from the Middle East and Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe. She wrote:

On top, the judges, the best of German Jewry. Below them, the prosecuting attorneys, Galicians, but still Europeans. Everything is organized by a police force that gives me the creeps, speaks only Hebrew, and looks Arabic. Some downright brutal types among them. They would obey any order. And outside the doors, the oriental mob, as if one were in Istanbul or some other half-Asiatic country.[28]

Although Arendt remained a Zionist both during and after World War II, she made it clear that she favored the creation of a Jewish-Arab federated state in Palestine, rather than a purely Jewish state. She believed that this was a way to address Jewish statelessness and to avoid the pitfalls of nationalism.[234][200]

It was not just Arendt's analysis of the Eichmann trial that drew accusations of racism. In her 1958 essay in Dissent entitled Reflections on Little Rock[235] she expressed opposition to desegregation following the 1957 Little Rock Integration Crisis in Arkansas. As she explains in the preface, for a long time the magazine was reluctant to print her contribution, so far did it appear to differ from the publication's liberal values. Eventually it was printed alongside critical responses. Later the New Yorker would express similar hesitancy over the Eichmann papers. So vehement was the response, that Arendt felt obliged to defend herself in a sequel.[236] The debate over this essay has continued since.[237] William Simmons devotes a whole section of his 2011 text on human rights (Human Rights Law and the Marginalized Other)[238] to a critique of Arendt's position and in particular on Little Rock.[239] While a number of critics feel she was fundamentally racist,[240] many of those who have defended Arendt's position have pointed out that her concerns were for the welfare of the children, a position she maintained throughout her life. She felt that the children were being subjected to trauma in order to serve a broader political strategy of forcible integration.[241] While over time Arendt conceded some ground to her critics, namely that she argued as an outsider, she remained committed to her central critique that children should not be thrust into the front-lines of geopolitical conflict.[242]

Feminism

Embraced by feminists, as a pioneer in a world dominated by men up to her time, she would be very surprised to hear herself described as a feminist,[243] remaining opposed to the social dimensions of Women's Liberation, urging independence, but always keeping in mind Viva la petite différence![244] On becoming the first woman to be appointed a professor at Princeton, the media were much engaged in this achievement, but she never wanted to be seen as an exception, either as a woman (an "exception woman")[141] or a Jew, stating emphatically "I am not disturbed at all about being a woman professor, because I am quite used to being a woman,[245] She rather enjoyed what she saw as the privileges of being feminine as opposed to feminist, "Intensly feminine and therefore no feminist", stated Hans Jonas.[141] Arendt considered some professions and positions unsuitable for women, particularly those involving leadership, telling Güunter Gaus "It just doesn't look good when a woman gives orders".[246] Despite these views, and having been labelled "anti-feminist", much space has been devoted to examining Arendt's place in relation to feminism.[247][248]

Critique of human rights

In The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt devotes a lengthy chapter (The Decline of the Nation-State and the End of the Rights of Man)[249] to a critical analysis of human rights, in what has been described as "the most widely read essay on refugees ever published".[250] Arendt is not skeptical of the notion of political rights in general, but instead defends a national or civil conception of rights.[251] Human rights, or the Rights of Man as they were commonly called, are universal, inalienable, and possessed simply by virtue of being human. In contrast, civil rights are possessed by virtue of belonging to a political community, most commonly by being a citizen. Arendt's primary criticism of human rights is that they are ineffectual and illusory because their enforcement is in tension with national sovereignty.[252] She argued that since there is no political authority above that of sovereign nations, state governments have little incentive to respect human rights when such policies conflict with national interests. This can be seen most clearly by examining the treatment of refugees and other stateless people. Since the refugee has no state to secure their civil rights, the only rights they have to fall back on are human rights. In this way Arendt uses the refugee as a test case for examining human rights in isolation from civil rights.[253]

Arendt's analysis draws on the refugee upheavals in the first half of the twentieth century along with her own experience as a refugee fleeing Nazi Germany. She argued that as state governments began to emphasize national identity as a prerequisite for full legal status, the number of minority resident aliens increased along with the number of stateless persons whom no state was willing to recognize legally.[254] The two potential solutions to the refugee problem, repatriation and naturalization, both proved incapable of solving the crisis. Arendt argued that repatriation failed to solve the refugee crisis because no government was willing to take them in and claim them as their own. When refugees were forcibly deported to neighboring countries, such immigration was deemed illegal by the receiving country, and so failed to change the fundamental status of the migrants as stateless. Attempts at naturalizing and assimilating refugees also had little success. This failure was primarily the result of resistance from both state governments and the majority of citizens, since both tended to see the refugees as undesirables who threatened their national identity. Resistance to naturalization also came from the refugees themselves who resisted assimilation and attempted to maintain their own ethnic and national identities.[255] Arendt contends that neither naturalization nor the tradition of asylum was capable of handling the sheer number of refugees. Instead of accepting some refugees with legal status, the state often responded by denaturalizing minorities who shared national or ethnic ties with stateless refugees.[253]

Arendt argues that the consistent mistreatment of refugees, most of whom were placed in internment camps, is evidence against the existence of human rights. If the notion of human rights as universal and inalienable is to be taken seriously, the rights must be realizable given the features of the modern liberal state.[256] She concluded "The Rights of Man, supposedly inalienable, proved to be unenforceable–even in countries whose constitutions were based upon them–whenever people appeared who were no longer citizens of any sovereign state".[257] Arendt contends that they are not realizable because they are in tension with at least one feature of the liberal state—national sovereignty. One of the primary ways in which a nation exercises sovereignty is through control over national borders. State governments consistently grant their citizens free movement to traverse national borders. In contrast, the movement of refugees is often restricted in the name of national interests.[258] This restriction presents a dilemma for liberalism because liberal theorists typically are committed to both human rights and the existence of sovereign nations.[253]

In one of her most quoted passages,[259] she puts forward the concept that human rights are little more than an abstraction:

The conception of human rights based upon the assumed existence of a human being as such broke down at the very moment when those who professed to believe in it were for the first time confronted with people who had indeed lost all other qualities and specific relationships - except that they were still human. The world found nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of being human.[260]

Several authors have written biographies that focus on the relationship between Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger.[261][44][46] In 1999, the French feminist philosopher Catherine Clément wrote a novel, Martin and Hannah,[262] speculating on the trianglular relationship between Heidegger and the two women in his life, Arendt and Heidegger's wife Elfriede Petri. In addition to the relationships, the novel is a serious exploration of philosophical ideas, that centers on Arendt's last meeting with Heidegger in Freiburg in 1975. The scene is based on Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's description in Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (1982),[50] but reaches back to their childhoods, and Heidegger's role in encouraging the relationship between the two women.[263] The novel explores Heidegger's embrace of Nazism as a proxy for that of Germany and, as in Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, the difficult relationship between collective guilt and personal responsibility. Clément also brings Hannah's other mentor and confidante, Karl Jaspers, into the matrix of relationships.[264]

Hannah Arendt (2012)

Arendt's life remains part of current culture and thought. In 2012 the German film, Hannah Arendt, directed by Margarethe von Trotta was released. The film, with Barbara Sukowa in the title role, depicted the controversy over Arendt's coverage of the Eichmann trial and subsequent book,[163] in which she was widely misunderstood as defending Eichmann and blaming Jewish leaders for the Holocaust.[265][266]

Legacy

Hannah Arendt is widely considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the twentieth century.[8] As a political theorist, moral philosopher and polemicist, she is unmatched in both range and rigor.[267] In 1998 Walter Laqueur stated "No twentieth-century philosopher and political thinker has at the present time as wide an echo", as philosopher, historian, sociologist and also journalist.[268] Her legacy has been described as a cult,[268][269] yet she shunned publicity, never expecting, as she explained to Karl Jaspers in 1951, to see herself as a "cover girl" on the newsstands.[lower-alpha 24][159] In Germany, there are tours available of sites associated with her life.[272]

The study of the life and work of Hannah Arendt, and of her political and philosophical theory is described as Arendtian.[273][187] In her will she established the Hannah Arendt Bluecher Literary Trust as the custodian of her writings and photographs.[274] Her personal library was deposited at Bard College at the Stevenson Library in 1976, and includes approximately 4,000 books, ephemera, and pamphlets from Arendt's last apartment as well as her desk (in McCarthy House).[275] The college has begun archiving some of the collection digitally, which is available at The Hannah Arendt Collection.[276] Most of her papers were deposited at the Library of Congress and her correspondence with her German friends and mentors, such as Heidegger, Blumenfeld and Jaspers, at the Deutsches Literaturarchiv in Marbach.[277] The Library of Congress listed more than 50 books written about her in 1998, and that number has continued to grow, as have the number of scholarly articles, estimated as 1000 at that time.[268]

Her life and work is recognized by the institutions most closely associated with her teaching, by the creation of Hannah Arendt Centers at both Bard (Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities)[278] and The New School,[279] both in New York State. In Germany, her contributions to understanding authoritarianism is recognised by the Hannah-Arendt-Institut für Totalitarismusforschung (Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism) in Dresden. There are Hannah Arendt Associations (Hannah Arendt Verein)[268] such as the Hannah Arendt Verein für politisches Denken in Bremen that awards the annual Hannah-Arendt-Preis für politisches Denken (Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thinking) established in 1995. In Oldenburg, the Hannah Arendt Center at Carl von Ossietzky University was established in 1999,[280] and holds a large collection of her work (Hannah Arendt Archiv),[281] and administers the internet portal HannahArendt.net (A Journal for Political Thinking)[282] as well as a monograph series, the Hannah Arendt-Studien.[283] In Italy, the Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies is situated at the University of Verona for Arendtian studies.[273]

In 2017 a journal, Arendt Studies, was launched to publish articles related to the study of the life, work, and legacy of Hannah Arendt.[284] Many places associated with her, have memorabilia of her on display, such as her student card at the University of Heidelberg (see image).[285] 2006, the anniversary of her birth, saw commemorations of her work in conferences and celebrations around the world.[36]

In 2016, the filmmaker Ada Ushpiz produced a documentary on Hannah Arendt, Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt.[286] The New York Times designated it a New York Times critics pick.[267] Of the many photographic portraits of Arendt, that taken in 1944 by Fred Stein (see image), whose work she greatly admired,[lower-alpha 25] has become iconic, and has been described as better known than the photographer himself,[288] having appeared on a German postage stamp.(see image) Among organizations that have recognized Arendt's contributions to civilization and human rights, is the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR).[289]

Contemporary relevance

The rise of nativism, such as the election of Donald Trump in America,[233][290][291] and concerns regarding an increasing authoritarian style of governance has led to radio broadcasts[292] and writers, including Jeremy Adelman[110] and Zoe Williams,[293] to revisit Arendt's ideas to seek the extent to which they inform our understanding of such movements.[294][295] At the same time Amazon reported that it had sold out of copies of The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951).[296] In particular Michiko Kakutani has addressed what she refers to as "The Death of Truth".[297] In her book, she argues that the rise of totalitarianism has been founded on the violation of truth. She begins her book with an extensive quote from The Origins of Totalitarianism[135]

The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (i.e., the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (i.e., the standards of thought) no longer exist[298][299]

Kakutani believed that Arendt's words speak not just events of a previous century but apply equally to the contemporary cultural landscape populated with fake news and lies. She also draws on Arendt's essay "Lying in Politics" from Crises in the Republic[162] pointing to the lines:

The historian knows how vulnerable is the whole texture of facts in which we spend our daily life; it is always in danger of being perforated by single lies or torn to shreds by the organized lying of groups, nations, or classes, or denied and distorted, often carefully covered up by reams of falsehoods or simply allowed to fall into oblivion. Facts need testimony to be remembered and trustworthy witnesses to be established in order to find a secure dwelling place in the domain of human affairs[300]

Arendt drew attention to the critical role that propaganda plays in gaslighting populations, Kakutani observes, citing the passage:[301][302]

In an ever-changing, incomprehensible world the masses had reached the point where they would, at the same time, believe everything and nothing, think that everything was possible and that nothing was true .... The totalitarian mass leaders based their propaganda on the correct psychological assumption that, under such conditions, one could make people believe the most fantastic statements one day, and trust that if the next day they were given irrefutable proof of their falsehood, they would take refuge in cynicism; instead of deserting the leaders who had lied to them, they would protest that they had known all along that the statement was a lie and would admire the leaders for their superior tactical cleverness[303]

But it is also relevant that Arendt took a broader perspective on history than merely totalitarianism in the early twentieth century, stating "the deliberate falsehood and the outright lie have been used as legitimate means to achieve political ends since the beginning of recorded history".[304][305] Contemporary relevance is also reflected in the increasing use of the phrase, attributed to her, "No one has the right to obey" to reflect that actions result from choices, and hence judgement, and that we cannot disclaim responsibility for that which we have the power to act upon.[232] In addition those centers established to promote Arendtian studies continue to seek solutions to a wide range of contemporary issues in her writing.[306]

Arendt's teachings on obedience have also been linked to the controversial psychology experiments by Stanley Milgram, that implied that ordinary people can easily be induced to commit atrocities.[307][223] Milgram himself drew attention to this in 1974, stating that he was testing the theory that Eichmann like others would merely follow orders, but unlike Milgram she argued that actions involve responsibility.[308][222]

Commemorations

Hannah-Arendt Straße in Berlin
Photograph of the courtyard of the house in which she was born, showing Hannah with a cigarette in her hand and the inscription, attributed to her "No one has the right to obey", in German
Courtyard of Arendt's house in Linden-Mitte

Many of the houses in which Hannah Arendt lived, bear commemorative plaques (Gedenktafeln), such as that shown on this page for Heidelberg, and also Marburg and Berlin. In 2017, Babelsberg announced it would erect a plaque on her home there.[61] Her birth town of Linden, Hannover celebrates her name in a variety of ways, including a plaque. The city library has a Hannah Arendt Room, exhibiting her personal possessions. Her house bears a plaque, two schools and a road (Hannah-Arendt-Weg) near the town hall are named after her, as is the square in front of the state parliament (Hannah-Arendt-Platz). There is a Hannah Arendt Fellowship and a Hannah Arendt Chair at the Helene-Lange-Schule, while Hannover celebrates Hannah Arendt Days (Hannah Arendt Tagen).[309] Her birthplace also has a mural on a wall in the courtyard, bearing the inscription Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen (No one has the right to obey), a saying often attributed to her as summarizing her verdict on Adolf Eichmann. Her contributions to resistance and rescue are commemorated at the Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (German Resistance Memorial Center) in Berlin.[310]

Hannah Arendt has been honoured by the use of her name in many contexts, including:

Family tree

Arendt-Cohn families[320][15]
Max Arendt
1843–1913
Johannah Wohlgemuth
1849 - 1876
Jacob Cohn
1836–1906
Fanny Spiero
1855–1923
Paul
1873–1913
Henrietta
1874–1922
Lina
b.1873
Martha
1874–1948
m.(1) 1902 m.(2) 1920
Martin Beerwald
1869–1941
Rafael
1876–1916
Margarethe
1884–1942
Fürst
1924
m.(1) 1929
Günther Stern
1902–1992
Hannah Arendt
1906–1975
m.(2) 1940
Heinrich Blücher
1889–1970
WernerEvaErnstKäthe Lewin
HannahEdna
b.1943
Michael Brocke
b.1940

See also

Notes

  1. After World War II Königsberg became Kaliningrad, Russia
  2. Margarethe delayed fleeing Germany when her sister did, and was deported to a camp in 1941, where she died[15]
  3. Anne Mendelssohn: Descendant of Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786) and Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847), an influential local family. Anne left Germany for Paris at the same time as Arendt. Married the philosopher Eric Weil (1904-1977) in 1934, and worked for the French Resistance under the alias Dubois. She died on July 5, 1984[40]
  4. Augustin and the Pauline freedom problem. A philosophical contribution to the genesis of the Christian-Western idea of freedom
  5. "I won Hannah's heart at a ball, whilst dancing: I remarked that "love is the act in which one transforms an a posteriori, the other person one has encountered by coincidence – into the a priori of one's own life." – This pretty formula did admittedly not turn out to be true."[51]
  6. Extramarital cohabitation was not unusual amongst Berlin intelligentsia, but would be considered scandalous in provincial university communities, necessitating their marriage before moving to Heidelberg and Frankfurt to pursue Günther's academic aspirations.[63]
  7. Stern was advised that employment at a university was unlikely due to the rising power of the Nazis.
  8. Anders - there are a number of theories as to reason why, including Herbert Ihering stating there were too many writers called Stern, so choose something "different" (anders), to being less Jewish sounding,[51] to not wanting to be seen as the son of his famous father[77]
  9. Pariavolk: In Religionssoziologie (The Sociology of Religion). While Arendt based her work on Weber, a number of earlier authors had also used this term, including Theodor Herzl[89]
  10. "Original Assimilation" was first published in English in 2007, as part of the collection Jewish Writings.[100]
  11. "Die jüdische Assimilation scheint heute in Deutschland ihren Bankrott anmelden zu müssen. Der allgemein gesellschaftliche und offiziell legitimierte Antisemitismus trifft in erster Linie das assimilierte Judentum, das sich nicht mehr durch Taufe und nicht mehr durch betonte Distanz zum Ostjudentum entlasten kann."[101]
  12. Youth Aliyah, literally Youth Immigration, reflecting the fundamental Zionist tenet of "going up" to Jerusalem
  13. Hannah Arendt's mother, Martha Arendt (born Cohn) had a sister Margarethe Fürst in Berlin, with whom the Arendt's sought refuge for a while during World War I. Margarethe's son Ernst (Hannah Arendt's cousin) married Hannah's childhood friend, Käthe Lewin, and they emigrated to Palestine in 1934. There, their first daughter was named Hannah after Hannah Arendt (Big Hannah). Their second daughter, Edna Fürst (b. 1943) later married Michael Brocke and accompanied her great aunt Hannah Arendt at the Eichman trial[116]
  14. Gurs to Montauban, about 300 km
  15. The Huguenot mayor of Montauban had made welcoming political refugees an official policy[126]
  16. Schocken Books began as Schocken Verlag, a German-Jewish publishing house that relocated to New York in 1945[129]
  17. Dark Times: A phrase she took from Brecht's poem An die Nachgeborenen ("To Those Born After", 1938),[167] the first line of which reads Wirklich, ich lebe in finsteren Zeiten! (Truly, I live in dark times!). To both Brecht and Arendt, "Dark Times" was not merely a descriptive term for perceived atrocities but an explanation of the loss of guiding principles of theory, knowledge and explanation[168]
  18. E B Ashton: Pseudonym of Ernst Basch (1909–1983), a fellow émigré who translated many German philosophical works, including those of Jaspers, and was the author of The Fascist: His State And His Mind (1937)[172]
  19. Fugitive writings: Dealing with subjects of passing interest
  20. Arendt/Heidegger: Arendt willed that her correspondence be taken to the Deutsches Literaturarchiv in Marbach in 1976 and sealed for 5 years, and Heidegger's family stipulated that it remained sealed during Martin Heidegger's wife Elfride's lifetime (1893–1992). In 1976, Elzbieta Ettinger sought access and was granted this for a planned biography after Elfride's death. The subsequent scandal following Ettinger's disclosures, led to a decision to publish the correspondence in entirety[47][48]
  21. The Palazzo degli Uffici Finanziari was originally the Casa del Fascio and the square, the Piazza Arnaldo Mussolini, and was erected as the Fascist headquarters for the region. The bas-relief is by Hans Piffrader
  22. Ladin, German and Italian: Degnu n'a l dërt de ulghè - Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen - Nessuno ha il diritto di obbedire
  23. "Civil Disobedience" originally appeared, in somewhat different form, in The New Yorker. Versions of the other essays originally appeared in The New York Review of Books
  24. Letter to Jaspers May 14, 1951.[270] Her image appeared on the cover of the Saturday Review of Literature on Saturday, March 24, 1951 (see image), shortly after the publication of The Origins of Totalitarianism. She also appeared on Time and Newsweek in the same week[271]
  25. Arendt wrote to Stein "It is my honest opinion that you are one of the best portrait photographers of the present day"[287]

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Bibliography


Articles (journals and proceedings)

  • Allen, Wayne F. (1 July 1982). "Hannah Arendt: existential phenomenology and political freedom". Philosophy & Social Criticism. 9 (2): 170–190. doi:10.1177/019145378200900203.
  • Bagchi, Barnita (January 2007). "Hannah Arendt, Education, and Liberation : A Comparative South Asian Feminist Perspective". Heidelberg Papers In South Asian and Comparative Politics (35).
  • Betz, Joseph (1992). "An Introduction to the Thought of Hannah Arendt". Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society. 28 (3): 379–422.
  • Brandes, Daniel (2010). "Nietzsche, Arendt, and the Promise of the Future" (PDF). Animus. 14. ISSN 1209-0689.
  • Burroughs, Michael D (2015). "Hannah Arendt, 'Reflections on Little Rock,' and White Ignorance". Critical Philosophy of Race. 3 (1): 52–78. doi:10.5325/critphilrace.3.1.0052.
  • Cook, Joseph J. ""Ich Bin Adolf Eichmann" Recalling the Banality of Evil" (PDF). Saber and Scroll. 5 (1): 81–93.
  • Cutting-Gray, Joanne (1991). "Hannah Arendt's Rahel Varnhagen". Philosophy and Literature. 15 (2): 229–245. doi:10.1353/phl.1991.0023.
  • Epstein, Alek D. (30 September 2014). "Judging the Trial: Hannah Arendt as a Moral Philosopher of Nation-State Building". The European Legacy. 19 (7): 901–905. doi:10.1080/10848770.2014.965516.
  • Horst, Gerfried (2015). "Ханна Арендт и Кёнигсберг" [Hannah Arendt and Königsberg]. Voprosy Filosofii (in Russian) (8): 184–190. (French translation)
  • Jakopovich, Dan (Fall 2009). "Hannah Arendt and Nonviolence" (PDF). Peace Studies Journal. 2 (1): 1 14.
  • Jonas, Hans (2006) [2003]. trans. Brian Fox and Richard Wolin. "Hannah Arendt: An Intimate Portrait". New England Review (1990-). 27 (2): 133–142.
  • Laqueur, Walter (1998). "The Arendt Cult: Hannah Arendt as Political Commentator". Journal of Contemporary History. 33 (4): 483–496. , reprinted in Aschheim (2001, pp. 47–64)
  • Lebeau, Vicky (29 June 2016). "The Unwelcome Child: Elizabeth Eckford and Hannah Arendt". Journal of Visual Culture. 3 (1): 51–62. doi:10.1177/1470412904043598.
  • Markus, Maria (1987). "The 'Anti-Feminism' of Hannah Arendt". Thesis Eleven. 17 (1): 76–87. doi:10.1177/072551368701700106.
  • Momigliano, Arnaldo (1980). "A Note on Max Weber's Definition of Judaism as a Pariah-Religion". History and Theory. 19 (3): 313–318. doi:10.2307/2504547.
  • Morey, Maribel (20 December 2011). "Reassessing Hannah Arendt's "Reflections on Little Rock" (1959)". Law, Culture and the Humanities. 10 (1): 88–110. doi:10.1177/1743872111423795.
  • Pickett, Adrienne (2009). "Images, Dialogue, and Aesthetic Education: Arendt's response to the Little Rock Crisis" (PDF). Philosophical Studies in Education. 40: 188–199.
  • Ray, Larry; Diemling, Maria (24 July 2016). "Arendt's 'conscious pariah' and the ambiguous figure of the subaltern" (PDF). European Journal of Social Theory. 19 (4): 503–520. doi:10.1177/1368431016628261.
  • Riepl-Schmidt, Mascha (15 February 2005). "Henriette Arendt". HannahArendt.net (in German). 1 (1). ISSN 1869-5787.
  • Rösch, Felix (20 September 2013). "Realism as social criticism: The thinking partnership of Hannah Arendt and Hans Morgenthau". International Politics. 50 (6): 815–829. doi:10.1057/ip.2013.32.
  • Rosenberg, Elissa (February 2012). "Walking in the city: memory and place". The Journal of Architecture. 17 (1): 131–149. doi:10.1080/13602365.2012.659914.
  • Saussy, Haun (2013). "The Refugee Speaks of Parvenus and Their Beautiful Illusions: A Rediscovered 1934 Text by Hannah Arendt". Critical Inquiry. 40 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1086/673223.
  • Schuler-Springorum, Stefanie (1 June 1999). "Assimilation and Community Reconsidered: The Jewish Community in Konigsberg, 1871-1914". Jewish Social Studies. 5 (3): 104–131. doi:10.1353/jss.1999.0008. ISSN 1527-2028.
  • Shenhav, Yehouda (December 2013). "Beyond 'instrumental rationality': Lord Cromer and the imperial roots of Eichmann's bureaucracy" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 15 (4): 379–399. doi:10.1080/14623528.2013.856083.
  • Szécsényi, Endre (30 March 2005). The Hungarian Revolution in the "Reflections" by Hannah Arendt. Europe or the Globe? Eastern European Trajectories in Times of Integration and Globalization. Vienna: IWM. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  • Sznaider, Natan (25 April 2015). "Hannah Arendt: Jew and Cosmopolitan". Socio (4): 197–221. doi:10.4000/socio.1359.
  • Villa, Dana (2009). "Hannah Arendt, 1906-1975". The Review of Politics. 71 (1): 20–36.
  • Visvanathan, Susan (April 2001). "Hannah Arendt and the Problem of Our Age". Economic and Political Weekly. 36 (16): 1307–1309.
  • Vogel, Lawrence A. (Spring 2008). "The Responsibility of Thinking in Dark Times: Hannah Arendt versus Hans Jonas". Graduate Faculty Philosophy Journal. 29 (1): 253–293.
  • Wellmer, Albrecht (1999). "Hannah Arendt On Revolution". Revue Internationale de Philosophie]. 53 (208 (2)): 207–222.
  • Zebadúa Yáñez, Verónica (18 November 2017). "Reading the Lives of Others: Biography as Political Thought in Hannah Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir". Hypatia. 33 (1): 94–110. doi:10.1111/hypa.12383. ISSN 0887-5367.
  • Young-Bruehl, Elizabeth (18 August 2016). "Reflections on Hannah Arendt's the Life of the Mind". Political Theory. 10 (2): 277–305. doi:10.1177/0090591782010002008.

Special issues and proceedings

  • Ojakangas, Mika, ed. (2010). "Hannah Arendt: Practice, Thought and Judgement". Collegium (Special issue). 8.
    • Scott, Joanna Vecchiarelli (2010). "What St. Augustine Taught Hannah Arendt about "how to live in the world": Caritas, Natality and the Banality of Evil": 8–27.
  • Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa, ed. (2004). "Does the World Exist?: Plurisignificant Ciphering of Reality (Proceedings of the 51st International Congress of Phenomenology, Rome 2001". Analecta Husserliana. Springer Science & Business Media. 79. ISBN 978-94-010-0047-5.
    • Durst, Margarete (2004). "Birth and Natality in Hannah Arendt": 777–797.
  • Zamora, José Antonio; Arribas, Sonia, eds. (2010). "Hannah Arendt. Pensar en tiempos sombríos". Arbor (Special issue) (in Spanish). 186 (742). doi:10.3989/arbor.2010.i742. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt". Social Research (Special issue). 44 (1). Spring 1977.
    • Jonas, Hans (1977). "Acting, Knowing, Thinking: Gleanings from Hannah Arendt's Philosophical Work". Social Research. 44 (1): 25–43.

Audiovisual

  • Berkowitz, Roger (2013). Hannah Arendt: A brief biography (DVD liner notes to Hannah Arendt). Zeitgeist Films.
  • BBFC (2013). Hannah Arendt. Releases (Film) (in German, English, and Hebrew). British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
    • IMDb (2012). Hannah Arendt (Film) (in German, English, and Hebrew). Retrieved 14 August 2018. (see also Hannah Arendt)
    • Page, Christopher (18 September 2013). "Hannah Arendt: The Responsibility of Conscience". Times Colonist (Review). Retrieved 16 August 2018.
    • Weigel, Moira (16 July 2013). "Heritage Girl Crush: On "Hannah Arendt"". Los Angeles Review of Books (Review). Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  • Bragg, Melvyn; Stonebridge, Lyndsey; Sheffield, Frisbee; Eaglestone, Robert (2 February 2017). Hannah Arendt. Radio 4: In Our Time (Radio panel discussion). BBC Radio. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  • Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies (2018). Video and Audio recordings (in German, English, and French). University of Verona. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  • Lozowick, Yaacov (Apr 5, 2011). Hannah Arendt, Adolf Eichmann, and how Evil Isn't Banal. The Holocaust Resource Center (video). Jerusalem: Yad Vashem. The World Holocaust Remembrance Center.
  • Zeitgeist (2015). Vita Activa - The Spirit of Hannah Arendt (Documentary) (Film) (in German, English, and Hebrew). Zeitgeist Films.
  • Günter, Gaus; Arendt, Hannah (1964). Hannah Arendt—A New Look at a Discerning Political Analyst of Her Own Time (Television interview) (in German (English subtitles)). Jewish Museum Berlin. Retrieved 14 August 2018.

Books

  • Adamson, Jane; Freadman, Richard; Parker, David, eds. (1998). Renegotiating Ethics in Literature, Philosophy, and Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62938-6.
  • Cesarani, David (2007). Becoming Eichmann: Rethinking the Life, Crimes, and Trial of a ""Desk Murderer"". Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81539-3.
  • Clément, Catherine (2001) [1999 Calmann-Lévy]. Martin et Hannah [Martin and Hannah: A Novel]. translated from French by Julia Shirek Smith. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-906-6.
    • Schroeder, Steven (2002). "Review of "Martin and Hannah: A Novel"". Essays in Philosophy (Review). 3 (1). ISSN 1526-0569.
  • Kakutani, Michiko (2018). The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump. Crown/Archetype. ISBN 978-0-525-57484-2.
    • Hayes, Chris (18 July 2018). "Michiko Kakutani's Book About Our Post-Truth Era". New York Times (Review). Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  • Keen, David (2006). Endless war?: hidden functions of the "war on terror". Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-2417-3. (see also excerpt at Keen (2007)
  • King, Richard H. (2018). Arendt and America. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31152-4.
  • Kopić, Mario (2013). Otkucaji drugoga [The Beats of the Other] (in Serbian). Belgrade: Službeni glasnik. ISBN 978-86-519-1721-2.
  • Lamey, Andy (2011). Frontier Justice: The Global Refugee Crisis and What To Do About It. Doubleday Canada. ISBN 978-0-307-36792-1.
  • Meja, Volker; Stehr, Nico, eds. (2014) [1990]. Knowledge and Politics: The Sociology of Knowledge Dispute. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-65163-5.
  • Milgram, Stanley (2017) [1974]. Obedience to Authority. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-280340-5. (see also Obedience to Authority)
  • Oatley, Keith (2018). Our Minds, Our Selves: A Brief History of Psychology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-9004-0.
  • Richter, William L., ed. (2009). Approaches to Political Thought. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4616-3656-4.
  • Sheldon, Garrett Ward (2003). The History of Political Theory: Ancient Greece to Modern America. Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8204-2300-5.
  • Simmons, William Paul (2011). Human Rights Law and the Marginalized Other. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-50326-6.
    • Simmons, William Paul (2011), Arendt, Little Rock, and the Cauterization of the Marginalized Other (PDF) (Essay)
  • Swedberg, Richard; Agevall, Ola (2016). The Max Weber Dictionary: Key Words and Central Concepts (2nd ed.). Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0022-5.
  • (2008). Public Freedom. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4008-3742-1.
  • Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (1998). Subject to Biography: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and Writing Women's Lives. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-85371-3.

Autobiography and biography

  • AAAS (2018). Book of members, 1780 – present: A (PDF). Cambridge MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 18. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  • Anders, Günther (2011). Oberschlick, Gerhard, ed. Die Kirschenschlacht: Dialoge mit Hannah Arendt und ein akademisches Nachwort [La Bataille de cerises]. with an essay by Christian Dries. C.H.Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-63278-5.
    • Flechard, Jean-Pierre (28 January 2014). "La Bataille de cerises de Günther Anders ". Les cahiers psychologie politique 24 (Review) (in French). Retrieved 18 September 2018.
    • Berkowitz, Roger (13 February 2012). "The Cherry Battle". hac.bard.edu (Review). Hannah Arendt Center, Bard College. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  • Ettinger, Elzbieta (1997) [1995]. Hannah Arendt/Martin Heidegger. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07254-9.
    • Ryan, Alan (11 January 1996). "Dangerous Liaison". The New York Review of Books (Review).
  • Grunenberg, Antonia (2017). Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger: History of a Love. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-02718-4.
  • Heller, Anne Conover (2015). Hannah Arendt: A Life in Dark Times. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-45619-8. excerpt
  • Hilmes, Oliver (2015). Malevolent Muse: The Life of Alma Mahler. Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-845-3.
  • Honig, Bonnie, ed. (2010) [1995]. Feminist Interpretations of Hannah Arendt. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-04320-2.
  • Howe, Irving (1984) [1982]. A Margin of Hope: An Intellectual Autobiography. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-657245-3.
  • Kristeva, Julia (2001) [1999 Librairie Arthème Fayard]. Le Génie féminin: Hannah Arendt [Hannah Arendt]. translated from the French by Ross Guberman. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12102-6.
  • Maier-Katkin, Daniel (2010a). Stranger from Abroad: Hannah Arendt, Martin Heidegger, Friendship and Forgiveness. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-07731-5.
    • Chamberlain, Lesley (2 July 2010). "Stranger from Abroad, By Daniel Maier-Katkin". The Independent (Review). Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  • Nixon, Jon (2015). Hannah Arendt and the Politics of Friendship. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4725-0754-9.
    • Austerlitz, Saul (9 March 2015). "The Hannah Arendt Guide to Friendship". The New Republic (Review). Retrieved 27 August 2018.
  • Stangneth, Bettina (2014). Eichmann Before Jerusalem: The Unexamined Life of a Mass Murderer. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-95968-3.
  • Vowinckel, Annette (2004). Hannah Arendt: zwischen deutscher Philosophie und jüdischer Politik [Hannah Arendt: Between German philosophy and Jewish politics] (in German). Lukas Verlag. ISBN 978-3-936872-36-1. (full text)
  • Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (2004) [1982]. Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (Second ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10588-9. (updated by way of a second preface, pagination unchanged)[lower-alpha 1]

Critical works

  • Aharony, Michal (2015). Hannah Arendt and the Limits of Total Domination: The Holocaust, Plurality, and Resistance. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-45789-2.
  • Aschheim, Steven E., ed. (2001). Hannah Arendt in Jerusalem [Hannah Arendt Beyerushalayim, Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2007 (in Hebrew)]. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22057-7.
    • Shenhav, Yehouda (3 May 2007). "All Aboard the Arendt Express". Haaretz (Review). Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  • Beiner, Ronald; Nedelsky, Jennifer (2001). Judgment, Imagination, and Politics: Themes from Kant and Arendt. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9971-1.
  • Benhabib, Seyla (2003). The Reluctant Modernism of Hannah Arendt. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-2151-3.
  • Berkowitz, Roger; Katz, Jeffrey; Keenan, Thomas, eds. (2010). Thinking in Dark Times: Hannah Arendt on Ethics and Politics. Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-3075-4.
  • Berkowitz, Roger; Storey, Ian, eds. (2017). Artifacts of Thinking: Reading Hannah Arendt's Denktagebuch. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-7217-4.
  • Bernstein, Richard J. (2013). Hannah Arendt and the Jewish Question. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-7456-6570-2.
  • Birmingham, Peg (2006). Hannah Arendt and Human Rights: The Predicament of Common Responsibility. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-11226-5.
  • Bowen-Moore, Patricia (1989). Hannah Arendt's Philosophy of Natality. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-1-349-20125-9.
  • Courtine-Denamy, Sylvie (2000) [1997 Editions Albin Michel]. Trois femmes dans de sombres temps [Three Women in Dark Times: Edith Stein, Hannah Arendt, Simone Weil, or Amor fati, amor mundi]. trans. from French by GM Goshgarian. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8758-7.
  • Dietz, Mary G. (2002). Turning Operations: Feminism, Arendt, and Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93244-8.
  • d'Entrèves, Maurizio Passerin (2002) [1994]. The Political Philosophy of Hannah Arendt. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-88196-3.
  • Faye, Emmanuel (2016). Arendt et Heidegger: Extermination nazie et destruction de la pensée (in French). Paris: Albin Michel. ISBN 978-2-226-42113-5.
    • Roza, Stéphanie (23 October 2017). "Emmanuel Faye, Arendt et Heidegger. Extermination nazie et destruction de la pensée, Paris, Albin Michel, collection « Bibliothèque Idées », 2016, 560 pages, 29 €". Dissidences (Review) (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  • Hansen, Phillip (2013) [1993]. Hannah Arendt: Politics, History and Citizenship. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-6694-5.
  • Harms, Klaus (2003). Hannah Arendt und Hans Jonas: Grundlagen einer philosophischen Theologie der Weltverantwortung (in German). WiKu-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-936749-84-7.
  • Hayden, Patrick, ed. (2014). Hannah Arendt: Key Concepts. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-54588-0.
  • Hermsen, Joke J.; Villa, Dana Richard, eds. (1999). The Judge and the Spectator: Hannah Arendt's Political Philosophy. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-0781-2.
  • Heuer, Wolfgang; Heiter, Bernd; Rosenmüller, Stefanie, eds. (2017). Arendt-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung (in German). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-476-05319-0.
  • Hinchman, Lewis P.; Hinchman, Sandra, eds. (1994). Hannah Arendt: Critical Essays. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1853-6.
  • Jones, Kathleen B. (2013a). Diving for Pearls: A Thinking Journey with Hannah Arendt. Thinking Women Books. ISBN 978-0-9860586-0-8. excerpt, see also Jones (2013)
  • Kampowski, Stephan (2008). Arendt, Augustine, and the New Beginning: The Action Theory and Moral Thought of Hannah Arendt in the Light of Her Dissertation on St. Augustine. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2724-1.
  • Kiess, John (2016). Hannah Arendt and Theology. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-62851-0.
  • Knott, Marie Luise (2014). Unlearning with Hannah Arendt. trans. David Dollenmayer. Other Press. ISBN 978-1-59051-648-5.
  • Kristeva, Julia (2001). Hannah Arendt: Life is a Narrative. translated from French by Frank Collins. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-3521-9.
  • Mahony, Deirdre Lauren (2018). Hannah Arendt's Ethics. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-03416-7.
  • May, Larry; Kohn, Jerome, eds. (1997). Hannah Arendt: Twenty Years Later. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-63182-2.
  • McGowan, John (1998). Hannah Arendt: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-1-4529-0338-5.
  • Ring, Jennifer (1998). The Political Consequences of Thinking: Gender and Judaism in the Work of Hannah Arendt. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-1739-4.
  • Schwartz, Jonathan Peter (2016). Arendt's Judgment: Freedom, Responsibility, Citizenship. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4814-2.
  • Skoller, Eleanor Honig (1993). The In-between of Writing: Experience and Experiment in Drabble, Duras, and Arendt. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10260-5.
  • Swift, Simon (2008). Hannah Arendt. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-09355-7.
  • Topolski, Anya (2015). Arendt, Levinas and a Politics of Relationality. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield International. ISBN 978-1-78348-341-9.
  • Villa, Dana (1996). Arendt and Heidegger: The Fate of the Political. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4008-2184-3.
  • (1999). Politics, Philosophy, Terror: Essays on the Thought of Hannah Arendt. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4008-2316-1.
  • , ed. (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Hannah Arendt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64571-3. text at Pensar el Espacio Público
  • Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (2006). Why Arendt Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13619-7.
  • Grunenberg, Antonia (2018). "Hannah Arendt-Studien / Hannah Arendt Studies" (in English and German). Peter Lang. Retrieved 27 August 2018.

Historical

  • Kant, Immanuel (2006) [1798]. Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht [Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View]. translated from German by Robert Louden. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67165-1.
  • (1793). Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft. Königsberg: Friedrich Nicolovius. p. 99.
  • (1838). Religion Within the Boundary of Pure Reason. translated from German by J W Semple. Edinburgh: Thomas Clark. p. 125.
  • Lazare, Bernard (2016) [1898 Kadimah, Paris]. Le Nationalisme Juif. Hachette Livre. ISBN 978-2-01-359879-8. facsimile text at Gallica, and reproduced on Wikisource
  • Rühle-Gerstel, Alice (1932). Das Frauenproblem der Gegenwart: eine psychologische Bilanz [Contemporary Women's Issues: A psychological balance sheet] (in German). S. Hirzel.
  • Weber, Max (1978) [1922]. Roth, Guenther; Wittich, Claus, eds. Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie [Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology]. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03500-3. full text available on Internet Archive
  • Weil, Hans (1967) [1930]. Die Entstehung des deutschen Bildungsprinzips [The Origin of the German Educational Principle]. H. Bouvier.

Chapters and contributions

  • Baier, Annette C (1998). Ethics in many different voices. pp. 267–268. , in Adamson, Freadman & Parker (1998)
  • Beiner, Ronald (1997). Love and worldliness: Hannah Arendt's reading of Saint Augustine. pp. 269–284. , in May & Kohn (1997)
  • Brocke, Edna (2009a). Afterword. "Big Hannah" - My Aunt. pp. 512–522. , in Arendt (2009a)
  • Canovan, Margaret (2013). Introduction. pp. vii–xx. , in Arendt (2013)
  • Dries, Christian (2011). Günther Anders und Hannah Arendt - eine Beziehungsskizze (PDF) (in German). pp. 71–140. , in Anders (2011)
  • Elon, Amos (2006a). Introduction. p. xxi. , in Arendt (2006a)
  • Fry, Karin (2014). Natality (PDF). pp. 23–35. , in Hayden (2014)
  • Gould, Carol (2009). Hannah Arendt and Remebrance. pp. 65–72. , in Richter (2009)
  • Luban, David (1994). Explaining Dark Times: Hannah Arendt's Theory of Theory. pp. 79–110. , in Hinchman & Hinchman (1994)
  • Scott, Joanna Vecchiarelli; Stark, Judith Chelius (1996). Preface: Rediscovering Love and Saint Augustine. pp. vii–xviii. , in Arendt (1996)
  • Weyembergh, Maurice (1999). Remembrance and Oblivion. pp. 79–96. , in Hermsen & Villa (1999)

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

  • "Arendt". Collins English Dictionary. William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 2012.
  • Duignan, Brian (4 June 2015). Hannah Arendt: American political scientist. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  • d'Entreves, Maurizio Passerin (10 April 2014). "Hannah Arendt". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive. Stanford University. Retrieved 23 July 2018. (Revision as of May 2018)
  • Honderich, Ted, ed. (2005). "Arendt, Hannah (1906–1975)". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. OUP. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-19-103747-4.
  • Hyman, Paula; Moore, Deborah Dash, eds. (1998). Jewish Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia. 2 vols. I: A-L. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91934-0.
    • Whitfield, Stephen J. (1998). Hannah Arendt (1906 - 1975). pp. 61–64. Retrieved 25 July 2018. , in Hyman & Moore (1998)
  • Lovett, Frank (4 June 2018). "Republicanism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive. Stanford University. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  • Wood, Kelsey (7 January 2004). "Hannah Arendt". The Literary Encyclopedia. The Literary Dictionary Company Limited. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  • Yar, Majid. "Hannah Arendt (1906—1975)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt". Encyclopedia of World Biography. The Gale Group. 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  • Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn (2014) [1996]. Encyclopedia of Women's History in America (2nd ed.). Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1033-2.

Magazines

  • Adelman, Jeremy (Spring 2016). "Pariah: Can Hannah Arendt Help Us Rethink Our Global Refugee Crisis?". Wilson Quarterly. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
  • Austerlitz, Saul (30 May 2013). "A New Movie Perpetuates the Pernicious Myth of Hannah Arendt". The New Republic.
  • Browning, Christopher R. (20 June 2013). "How Ordinary Germans Did It". The New York Review of Books.
  • Heinrich, Kaspar (19 November 2013). "Fotografien von Fred Stein: Der Poet mit der Kleinbildkamera". Der Spiegel (in German).
  • Howe, Irving (5 June 2013). "Banality and Brilliance". Dissent. Retrieved 6 September 2018. , reprinted from Howe (1984, pp. 269ff)
  • Jones, Kathleen B. (12 November 2013). "Hannah Arendt's Female Friends". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 18 August 2018. , reprinted in Jones (2013a)
  • (March–April 2014). "The Trial of Hannah Arendt". Humanities. Vol. 35 no. 2. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  • Keen, David (24 September 2007). "Action-as-Propaganda: Learning About the Iraq War from Hannah Arendt". CounterPunch. Retrieved 12 August 2018. (extract from Keen (2006)
  • Kirsch, Adam (12 January 2009). "Beware of Pity: Hannah Arendt and the power of the impersonal". The New Yorker. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  • Kohler, Lotte (21 March 1996). "The Arendt/Heidegger Affair". The New York Review of Books.
  • Maier-Katkin, Daniel (2010). "How Hannah Arendt Was Labeled an "Enemy of Israel"". Tikkun. Vol. 25 no. 6. pp. 11–14. ISSN 2164-0041.
  • Maier-Katkin, Daniel; Stoltzfus, Nathan (10 June 2013). "Hannah Arendt on Trial". The American Scholar. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  • Robin, Corey (1 June 2015). "The Trials of Hannah Arendt". The Nation.
  • Seliger, Ralph (15 April 2011). "Hannah Arendt: From Iconoclast to Icon". Tikkun. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
  • Wieseltier, Leon (7 October 1981). "Understanding Anti-Semitism: Hannah Arendt on the origins of prejudice". The New Republic. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
  • Wieseltier, Leon (14 October 1981a). "Pariahs and Politics: Hannah Arendt and the Jews". The New Republic. Retrieved 2 September 2018.

Newspapers

  • Avineri, Shlomo (3 March 2010). "Where Hannah Arendt Went Wrong". Haaretz. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
  • Berkowitz, Roger (7 July 2013a). "Misreading 'Eichmann in Jerusalem'". New York Times (Opinionator: The Stone).
  • Bird, David (4 December 1975). "Hannah Arendt, Political Scientist Dead". New York Times (Obituary). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  • Frantzman, Seth J. (5 June 2016). "Hannah Arendt, white supremacist It's time to admit that through Arendt's writing runs a thread of European white supremacy". Jerusalem Post.
  • Gassner, Peter (30 November 2014). "Eine philosophische Liebe in Marburg". Oberheissische Presse (in German). Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  • Grenier, Elizabeth (2 February 2017). "Why the world is turning to Hannah Arendt to explain Trump". DW.
  • Hanlon, Aaron (31 August 2018). "Postmodernism didn't cause Trump. It explains him". Washington Post.
  • Invernizzi-Accetti, Carlo (6 December 2017). "A small Italian town can teach the world how to defuse controversial monuments". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
  • Kakutani, Michiko (14 July 2018a). "The death of truth: how we gave up on facts and ended up with Trump". The Guardian.
  • Kaplan, Fred (24 May 2013). "'Hannah Arendt' Directed by Margarethe von Trotta". New York Times.
  • Kramer, Henri (1 March 2017). "Gedenktafel für Hannah Arendt in Babelsberg". Potsdamer Neuste Nachrichten (in German).
  • Scott, A. O. (5 April 2016). "Review: In 'Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt,' a Thinker More Relevant Than Ever". The New York Times (Review).
  • Pfeffer, Anshel (9 May 2008). "Dear Hannah". Haaretz. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  • Sznaider, Natan (20 October 2006). "Human, citizen, Jew". Haaretz. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  • Walters, Guy (19 January 2015). "Don't be fooled - Eichmann was a monster". The Telegraph. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  • Williams, Zoe (1 February 2017). "Totalitarianism in the age of Trump: lessons from Hannah Arendt". The Guardian.
  • "Killer of 6,000,000; Adolf Eichmann". New York Times. 26 May 1960. p. 18.

Theses

  • Abt, Ryan Nolan (May 2015). Representations of the Holocaust in Texas World History Textbooks from 1947 to 1980 (PDF) (MA thesis). University of Texas at Arlington.
  • Bertheau, Anne (2016). »Das Mädchen aus der Fremde«: Hannah Arendt und die Dichtung: Rezeption - Reflexion - Produktion (PhD thesis) (in German). transcript Verlag for Department of Germanic Studies (Études germaniques), Sorbonne, 2010. ISBN 978-3-8394-3268-6. (at Theses.fr)
  • Honkasalo, Julian (2016). Sisterhood, Natality, Queer: Reframing Feminist Interpretations of Hannah Arendt (PDF) (PhD thesis). Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies. University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-951-51-1896-7.
  • Miller, Joshua A (August 2010). Hannah Arendt's theory of deliberative judgement (PhD thesis). Pennsylvania State University.

Websites

  • Fry, Karin (2009). "Hannah Arendt 1906-1975: Philosophy of Mind, Social & Political Philosophy". Women Philosophers. Society for the Study of Women Philosophers. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt's 108th Birthday". Google Doodle Archives. Google. 14 October 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  • Onfray, Michel (2014). "Contre-histoire de la philosophie - Saison 12: La pensée post-nazie" (Podcast). France Culture. Archived from the original on 6 August 2014. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
  • "Fred Stein: Hannah Arendt, photograph (1944): Philosopher in a contemplative pose". Arts in Exile (Virtual exhibition). Retrieved 2 August 2018.
  • Young-Bruehl, Elizabeth (28 January 2011). "Who's Afraid of Social Democracy" (Blog). Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  • Heuer, Wolfgang. "Zeitschrift fur politisches Denken - Journal for Political Thinking (HannahArendt.net)" (in English and German). Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  • Barry, James, ed. (2017). "Arendt Studies" (journal). Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  • Addison, Sam (1972–1974). "Hannah Arendt: The Life of the Mind". Gifford Lectures. University of Aberdeen.
  • "Hannah Arendt & the University of Heidelberg". Between Truth and Hope. 30 October 2016.
  • Rosenthal, Abigail L. (17 February 2018). "Spoiling One's Story: The Case of Hannah Arendt". VoegelinView. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
  • "Pensar el Espacio Público ~ Seminario de Filosofía Política" (in Spanish). 2014–2015. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt. Vertrauen in das Menschliche" (PDF) (Exhibition brochure) (in German). Goethe Institut. 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2018. * Krieghofer, Gerald (1 July 2017). ""Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen." Hannah Arendt (angeblich)". Zitaträtsel. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
  • Miller, Joshua A. (25 September 2017). "How the Schocken Books collections changed Arendt scholarship". Anotherpanacea. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
  • "Obedience and Dictatorship". Desperado Philosophy. 22 December 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
  • Wolters, Eugene (16 July 2013). "Everyone is Wrong About Hannah Arendt". Critical-Theory.
  • Hill, Samantha Rose (26 March 2017). "What does it mean to love the world? Hannah Arendt and Amor Mundi". openDemocracy. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
  • "Ten things Hannah Arendt said that are eerily relevant in today's political times". Scroll.in. 4 December 2017.
  • Brecht, Bertolt. "An die Nachgeborenen". Lyrik-line: Listen to the poet (in German). Haus für Poesie. Retrieved 14 September 2018. - includes Brecht reading (english)
  • Waterhouse, Peter (July 2013). "Truth And Translation". European Institute for Progressive Cultural Policies (EIPCP).
  • Coombes, Thomas (12 February 2017). "Why we all need to read 'The Origins of Totalitarianism'". Medium.
  • Gold, Hannah (29 January 2017). "Amazon Needs to Restock Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism". Jezebel. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt". kulturreise-ideen (in German). Retrieved 8 October 2018.

Biography, genealogy and timelines

  • AAAL. "Academy Members: Deceased". Members. American Academy of Arts and Letters. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  • Heller, Anne C (6 July 2015a). "Hannah Arendt: A Brief Chronology". Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  • Ludz, Ursula (2005). "Vita Hannah Arendt". HannahArendt.net (in German). pp. 251–256. Retrieved 16 September 2018. , in Arendt (2005)
  • Schoenberg, Randy (23 May 2018). "Hannah Arendt". Geni. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt". Monoskop. 24 July 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  • Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (2000). "Arendt, Hannah". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1400024.
  • "Hannah Arendt". Contemporary Thinkers. The Foundation for Constitutional Government. 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.

Institutions, locations and organizations

  • "The Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities at Bard College". Retrieved 14 August 2018.
    • "McCarthy House". About Us. The Hannah Arendt Center. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
    • Bard. "The Hannah Arendt Collection". Hannah Arendt Center, Stevenson Library, Bard College. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
      • Kettler, David (2009). "Hannah Arendt Collection: Arendt on Mannheim". Retrieved 21 September 2018.
    • "The Hannah Arendt Center". Medium. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  • Bernstein, Richard J. (2017). "Hannah Arendt Center". New York: The New School for Social Research. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Centre". Institut für Philosophie: Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies". Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona. 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Gymnasium, Haßloch" (in German). Retrieved 31 July 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Gymnasium, Barsinghausen" (in German). Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Gymnasium, Lengerich" (in German). Schulen in Lengerich. 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Gymnasium, Berlin" (in German). 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  • Dries, Christian (July 2018). "Vita Günther Anders (1902-1992)". Translated by Christopher John Müller. Internationale Günther Anders Gesellschaft. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
  • Kirscher, Gilbert (27 March 2003). "Éric Weil : A Biography". Institut Eric Weil-Université de Lille. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
  • GDW (2016). "Hannah Arendt". Exile and Resistance. German Resistance Memorial Center. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt Tage". Das offizielle Portal der Region und der Landeshauptstadt Hannover. City of Hanover. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
    • "Hannah Arendt in Hannover". Das offizielle Portal der Region und der Landeshauptstadt Hannover. City of Hanover. 22 August 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  • CAS (2011). "Guide to the Center for Advanced Studies Records, 1958 - 1969". Wesleyan University Library. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  • UNHCR (2 Aug 2017). "Arendt, Hannah". UNHCR Central Europe. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
  • FBI (30 April 1956). "Hannah Arendt" (Memorandum to Director). Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  • "Orte des Erinnerns – Denkmal im Bayerischen Viertel, 1993 (Berlin-Schöneberg)" (in German). Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.

Maps

  • "Hannah-Arendt-Str., Marburg". Meinestadt.de (in German). 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  • "Rue Hannah Arendt". Google Maps. Retrieved 8 October 2018.

External images

  • "Hannah Arendt (1906—1975)" (Photograph of commemorative stamp). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1988. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendt, stamp, Germany 2006" (Photograph of commemorative stamp). UNHCR. 2006. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
  • "Map of location of Hannah Arendt Straße, Berlin". GeoHack (Map). Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  • Stein, Fred (2018). "Hannah Arendt, 1944". Portrait Portfolio (Photographic portrait). Fred Stein Archive. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  • "Hannah Arendts Erkennungskarte der Universität Heidelberg 1928". Bild des Monats (Student identity card). University of Heidelberg. November 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
  • Life of the Mind: Judging. 1975.
  • "Cover". Saturday Review of Literature (Cover image). 24 March 1951. Retrieved 25 September 2018.

Bibliographic notes

  1. 1st ed. Preface ix–xxv; 2nd ed. Preface to Second Edition ix–xxxvi, Preface xxxvii-l
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