Caste system in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka a caste-based social stratification system can be seen among its two major ethnic groups (the Sinhalese and the Tamils). The caste system was extensive from the ancient history of Sri Lanka to the colonial era. Although it is less extensive and important compared to the neighbouring India, majority of the population in Sri Lanka recognizes it for some purposes at least.[1]

The Sri Lankan caste system was influenced by the varnas of North India and the jāti system of South India, particularly Tamil Nadu.[2][3][4]

The occupations of ancient community groups have been linked to the development of castes, although the island's indigenous Veddha community avoided the system, however are sometimes identified as an own caste.[5][6][7] Three major, parallel caste systems exist in Sri Lankan society: Sinhala, Sri Lankan Tamil and Indian Tamil.

Castes

Ethnicity versus caste

It has been argued that until recently, caste may have been more important than ethnicity, religion and language. In ancient Sri Lanka, the varna system was important because of the Sinhala civilization's Indo-Aryan roots.[2][8][9] Although classified as Shudra, the Govigama[3][10] and the Vellala[4][7][11][12] were the dominant castes from the Dutch colonial period, collectively referred to as Bellala.[13] In ancient Ceylon, although marriages between Sinhalese and Tamils (usually among higher castes) were not uncommon, they occurred between comparable castes; Eurasians and South Indian Chetties married into the southern Sinhalese Govigama and Karava.[14] Several prestigious Govigama families have mixed Govigama and Tamil (or European) ancestry.[15][16]

Discrimination

Although caste discrimination is still found in Sri Lanka (particularly in rural areas), caste boundaries are blurring.[1] Political power and wealth have largely replaced caste as the main factor in Sri Lankan social stratification, especially in the Sinhalese and Indian Tamil communities.[17] Ponnambalam Ramanathan, under British Ceylon, opposed extending voting rights to the people and urged reservation of franchise only to men of the Vellalar caste.[18]

In 1951 the Kandyan Peasantry Commission wrote, " ... As a first step in the fight against caste it is necessary to abolish the service tenures." (R.K.P.C. 1951, p. 180.) Nur Yalman[19] encountered caste division in the Ceylonese village of Terutenne in 1954. According to Lakshman et al.,[20] "The Social Disabilities Act of 1957 intended to outlaw caste-based discrimination." (p. 68, note 16)

Sinhalese castes

The documented history of the island begins with the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India. The island was reportedly inhabited by four tribes at that time: the Dewa, Nagas, Yakkas and Raksha. Although the origin of Sri Lankan communities is unclear,[21] genetic studies on Sinhalese have shown that most of the Sinhala community is genetically related to the South Indians and Bengalis.[22][23][24][25][26][27] About half of the Sinhalese population are Govigama.[12] Of the three native tribes, it is believed that the Dewa are part of the Sinhalese castes.

Ancient Sri Lankan texts, such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya, Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptions, show that a fourfold caste category namely Raja, Bamunu, Velanda and Govi existed among the Sinhalese. Evidence of this hierarchy can be seen during the 18th century British-Kandyan period,[28] indicating its continuation even after the Sri Lankan monarchy.[29][30] Colonialism and foreign intervention in the dynastic conflicts of the island throughout history has also influenced the caste system, some suggesting even a re-arrangement of the occupational castes.[31][32] At present 13 castes are commonly found among the Sinhala viz. Radala, Govigama, Bathgama, Deva, Nekathi, Bodhivansha, Rajaka, kumbal, Hunu, Durava, Karava, Salagama and Navandanna, with smaller castes being absorbed to the larger castes.

Kandyan castes

In the Central Highlands, many traditions of the Kingdom of Kandy were preserved from its 1818 collapse beyond independence in 1948 and the Land Reform Act of the 1970s. Although large agricultural landlords belonged to the Govigama caste, many now may not own land. Most Govigama were however ordinary farmers and tenants as absolute land ownership was exclusive to the king until the British colonial period.[33] In addition to the Govigama, there were several strata of occupational castes. Wahumpura or Deva were the caste who traditionally made jaggery and farmed. The Bathgama caste was also engaged in agriculture with access to some land. The Navandanna (Achari) caste were artisans. The Rada were washers, and this caste is still prevalent in Sri Lanka's laundry sector. The Berava were traditional drummers and agricultural wage laborers. The Kinnara caste did menial work and were segregated from the rest of the community.[34] The most important feature of the Kandyan system was Rajakariya ("the king's work"), which linked each caste to an occupation and demanded service to the court and religious institutions.[35]

Southern castes

There are still differences between the caste structures of the highlands and those of the low country, although some service groups were common to both in ancient Sri Lanka. The southwestern coast has three other castes (the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava) in addition to the majority Govigama, which is common throughout the region. Some of these castes' ancestors are believed to have migrated from Southern India, and have become important in the Sinhalese social system. The first-century BC Anuradhpura Abayagiri inscription referring to a Karava navika may be the first reference to a specialized occupation.[36][37]

Tamil castes

The Tolkāppiyam Porulatikaram indicating the four-fold division is the earliest Tamil literature to mention caste.[7] Sangam literature however mentions only five kudis associated with the five tinais.[7][38] Colonialism also had influenced the caste system.[13][39]

Indian Tamils

Tamils of Indian origin (Hill Country Tamils, who were brought to the island by the British as indentured labour) also follows the Indian caste system form which is called jāti. Their caste structure resembles that of a Tamil Nadu village.

Those who are considered to be of higher castes occupy the first row of line rooms. They perform respectable jobs such as factory work and grinding of tea as minor labour work. Even though they belong to the labour category they are influential among conductors, tea makers, kanganies (or supervisors) and other officials. The workers considered low caste live in the dwellings that are away from the centre and these dwellings are called distant or lower lines. This group consists of Paraiyars, Sakkiliar, washers and barbers. The yard sweepers and changers of clothes are in the lowest rank.[40]

Sri Lankan Tamils

Unlike the modern Sinhalese counterpart, modern Sri Lankan Tamils caste-based social-stratification system is still influential.[41] The caste system has stronger religious ties than its Sinhalese counterpart, although both systems have comparable castes.[42] In the caste system observed, is there distinctions between Northern and Eastern societies, and also the agricultural and coastal societies.

In the agricultural society are there mainly the castes of the Vellalar, Pallar, Nalavar and Koviar, where the Vellalar caste is the dominating one, particularly in Northern Sri Lanka. They approximately constitute half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and are the major land owning and agricultural caste.[43][44]

The Northern and Western coastal society is dominated by the Karaiyars, traditionally a seafaring and warrior caste.[45] The Thimilar and the Paravar are also among the coastal communities involved in fishing. The Mukkuvars, traditional pearl divers, dominate greater parts of Eastern Sri Lanka where they are the major landowners also involved in agriculture.[46][47]

The artisans, known locally as Kammalar or Vishwakarma consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters), Kartatchar (sculptor).[48][49] Along with the Kammalar were the Ambattar (barbers), Kadaiyar (lime burners), Koviar (farmers), Kusavar (potters), Maraiyar (conch blowers), Nattuvar (musician), Nalavar (toddy-tappers), Pallar (farmers), Paraiyar (drummers), Turumbar (scavengers) and Vannar (dhobies) constituting the domestic servants termed as Kudimakkal.[50] The Kudimakkal gave ritual importance in marriage, funeral and other temple ceremonies.[51][52]

Other Sri Lankan Tamil castes of importance are the Cirpatar (cultivators), Iyer (priests), Kaikolar (weavers), Madapalli (former royal cooks), Shandar (toddy-tappers) and Siviyar (palanquin bearers).[53][54] The Sri Lankan Chetties, traditional merchants, along with the Bharatha people, traditional seatraders, are listed as their own ethnicities in Sri Lankan census.[55] The Coast Veddas, found mainly in Eastern Sri Lanka are considered a Tamil caste among the Sri Lankan Tamils.[5]

The village deities of the Sri Lankan Tamils are also shaped by the caste structure. The Sri Lankan Moors don't practice the caste system, however follow a matriclan system which is an extension of Tamil tradition.[56]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Silva, Kalinga Tudor; Sivapragasam, P.P.; Thanges, Paramsothy (2009). "Caste Discrimination and Social Justice in Sri Lanka: An Overview" (PDF). Indian Institute of Dalit Studies. III. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
  2. 1 2 Castes & Tribes at the time of Sanghamitta, Populations of the Saarc Countries: Bio-Cultural Perspectives, by Jayanta Sarkar and G. C. Ghosh, p.73
  3. 1 2 Polonnaruwa Galpotha inscription, CONCISE MAHAVAMSA: p. 107, by Mahānāma Thero and Dhammakitti Thero, edited by Wihelm Greiger (Publisher: Ruwan Rajapakse), ISBN 9780972865708
  4. 1 2 Madras journal of literature and science, Volume 13, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, p.41 (Nabu Press) ISBN 9781173048129
  5. 1 2 Samarasinghe, S. W. R. de A.; Studies, International Centre for Ethnic; utviklingshjelp, Norway Direktoratet for (1990). The Vanishing aborigines: Sri Lanka's Veddas in transition. International Centre for Ethnic Studies in association with NORAD and Vikas Pub. House. p. 70.
  6. ↑ Vadda of Sri Lanka, Accessed 13-06-2015
  7. 1 2 3 4 Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal (2009). A Social History of Early India. CSC and Pearson Education. pp. 30–37. ISBN 9788131719589.
  8. ↑ Senerat PARANAVITĀNA, Cyril Wace Nicholas (1961). A Concise History of Ceylon: From the Earliest Times to the Arrival of the Portuguese in 1505. Ceylon University. p. 18. ASIN B002AAG0Q6.
  9. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2003). India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India. C Hurst. pp. 152–56, 166–83. ISBN 1850656703.
  10. ↑ 15th century Janawamsaya on caste, The Adaptable Peasant: Agrarian Society in Western Sri Lanka..., Nirmal Ranjith Dewasiri, p. 188, (Brill Academic), ISBN 9789004165083
  11. ↑ Pfaffenberger, Bryan (1982). "Caste in Tamil Culture: The Religious Foundations of Sudra Domination in Tamil Sri Lanka". Tamilnation. org.
  12. 1 2 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
  13. 1 2 Fernando, Laksiri (2013). "Philip Baldaeus Didn't See A Big Ethnic Difference In Ceylon". Colombo Telegraph.
  14. ↑ The adaptable peasant: agrarian society in western Sri Lanka under Dutch rule, 1740-1800, By Nirmal Ranjith Dewasiri, p. 201.
  15. ↑ Nilaperumal aka Kalukapuge
  16. ↑ J.R. Jayawardena family History of the Colombo Chetties, edited and compiled by Deshabandu Reggie Candappa, Reviewed by Anne Abayasekara (Sunday Times, 08.07.2001)
  17. ↑ Caste in Jaffna And India, Review Article on Neville Jayaweera's Jaffna Exorcising the Past and Holding the Vision Dr. Devanesan Nesiah (Sunday Leader 10.10.2014)
  18. ↑ Phadnis, Urmila; Muni, Sukh Deo; Bahadur, Kalim (1986). Domestic Conflicts in South Asia: Economic and Ethnic Dimensions. South Asian Publishers. p. 128. ISBN 9788170030713.
  19. ↑ Under the Bo Tree -- studies in castes, kinship, and marriage in the interior of Ceylon, 1967, 1971, Univ. of California Press
  20. ↑ "Sri Lanka's Development Since Independence: Socio-economic Perspectives and Analyses", New York, 2000
  21. ↑ Kshatriya, GK (December 1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Hum. Biol. 67: 843–66. PMID 8543296.
  22. ↑ Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza (1996). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University. pp. 239–40. ISBN 0691029059.
  23. ↑ Kshatriya, GK (December 1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Hum. Biol. 67: 843–66. PMID 8543296.
  24. ↑ Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations, L Ranaweera, et al; Journal of Human Genetics (2014)
  25. ↑ Pre-Vijayan Agriculture in Sri Lanka, by Prof. T. W. Wikramanayake
  26. ↑ A SHORT HISTORY OF LANKA by Humphry William Codrington, CHAPTER I; THE BEGINNINGS 'The princess and her retinue/dowry (service castes)'
  27. ↑ Buddhism Betrayed?: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka By Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, p. 152-3
  28. ↑ Kadayimpoth - Boundary Books
  29. ↑ Mahavansha
  30. ↑ Sinhala Sanna ha Thudapath, Ananada thissa Kumara, Godage Publication,Second Edition,2006,pp 142,pp 137
  31. ↑ Kandy Fights the Portuguese, C.Gaston Perera, Vijithayapa Publications, 2007
  32. ↑ An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon In The East Indies, Robert knox, 1681, pp. 46 & 73
  33. ↑ Land: Feudalism to Modernity.
  34. ↑ http://www.defonseka.com/k07.htm
  35. ↑ An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies by Robert Knox.
  36. ↑ de Silva, Raaj. "The ancient 'Kaurava Pavilion' at Anuradhapura". De Fonseka Web. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
  37. ↑ "Paranavithana S. 1970 Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol I Early Brahmi Inscriptions". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
  38. ↑ KOLAPPAN, B (2015). "'Early Tamil society was free of caste'". The Hindu.
  39. ↑ Schröder, Ulrike (2012). Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India. Primus. p. 72,93–113,278. ISBN 9380607210.
  40. ↑ Radhakrishnan, V. "Indian origin in Sri Lanka:Their plight and struggle for survival". Proceedings of First International Conference & Gathering of Elders. International Center for Cultural Studies, USA. Archived from the original on 2008-03-20. Retrieved 2008-01-23.
  41. ↑ http://www.lankalibrary.com/cul/jaffna_castes.htm
  42. ↑ M. M. M. Mahroof (November–December 2000). "A Conspectus of Tamil Caste Systems in Sri Lanka: Away from a Parataxis". Social Scientist. 28 (11/12): 40–59. doi:10.2307/3518280. JSTOR 3518280.
  43. ↑ Peebles, Patrick (2015-10-22). Historical Dictionary of Sri Lanka. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. ISBN 9781442255852.
  44. ↑ Bush, Kenneth (2003-12-09). The Intra-Group Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Learning to Read Between the Lines. Springer. p. 52. ISBN 9780230597822.
  45. ↑ Das, Sonia N. (2016). Linguistic Rivalries: Tamil Migrants and Anglo-Franco Conflicts. Oxford University Press. p. 236. ISBN 9780190461782.
  46. ↑ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1982-09-02). Caste Ideology and Interaction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–60. ISBN 9780521241458.
  47. ↑ (Jaffna), University Teachers for Human Rights (1991). The Debasement of the law and of humanity and the drift towards total war. UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely. p. 31.
  48. ↑ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1974). Tamils and Moors: caste and matriclan structure in eastern Sri Lanka. University of Chicago. p. 160.
  49. ↑ David, Kenneth (1977-01-01). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia. Walter de Gruyter. p. 186. ISBN 9783110807752.
  50. ↑ David, Kenneth (1977-01-01). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia. Walter de Gruyter. p. 203. ISBN 9783110807752.
  51. ↑ Pranāndu, Mihindukalasūrya Ār Pī Susantā (2005). Rituals, folk beliefs, and magical arts of Sri Lanka. Susan International. p. 459. ISBN 9789559631835.
  52. ↑ Raghavan, M. D. (1961). The Karāva of Ceylon: Society and Culture. K.V.G. De Sīlva. pp. 87–88.
  53. ↑ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1983). "Paraiyar Drummers of Sri Lanka: Consensus and Constraint in an Untouchable Caste". American Ethnologist. 10 (1): 97.
  54. ↑ Chitty, Simon Casie (1834). The Ceylon Gazetteer: Containing an Accurate Account of the Districts, Provinces, Cities, Towns ... &c. of the Island of Ceylon. Cotta Church Mission Press. p. 55.
  55. ↑ "Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka" (PDF). Department of Census and Statistics. 2012.
  56. ↑ KLEM, BART (2011). "Islam, Politics and Violence in Eastern Sri Lanka". The Journal of Asian Studies. 70 (3): 730–753. JSTOR 41302391.
Further reading
  • Bryce Ryan, Caste in Modern Ceylon, Rutgers University Press, 1953.
  • Social Change in 19th century Ceylon. Patrick Peebles. 1995, Navrang ISBN 81-7013-141-3
  • The adaptable peasant: agrarian society in western Sri Lanka under Dutch rule, 1740–1800, Nirmal Ranjith Dewasiri, ISBN 90-04-16508-8, p. 201
  • Paranavithana S. 1970 Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol I Early Brahmi Inscriptions
  • An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies by Robert Knox
  • The International Dalit Solidarity Network: The Caste System in Sri Lanka
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