The history of science
The historical stages of development for science:
- Antique science. Science had arisen in times of ancient time, but scientific knowledge stayed in embryonic condition a long time. The first scientists are Aristotle, Archimedes, Euclid and so on. The shortcoming of antique science was that the antique science supported on abstract reasoning with help of formal logic only, but not on the experience and experiment.
- Medieval science. Medieval science existed under strong pressure from religion, medieval science could not put under doubt the Bible’s myths about creation of universe by God and about creation of man by God.
- Science of Modern history . Situation had changed in 16‐17 centuries cardinally. Science has become to support on experience and experiment. At first Church tried to struggle against science for ideological influence on society, some scientists have become the victims of inquisition even, for example, Giordano Bruno had been burned at the fire. Galileo Galilei had been forced to regret under threat of tortures and execution. But then the Church had been forced to recede, and then science and Church had divided their functions in society and science and Church have ceased to struggle with each other. Function of the Church is upbringing and consolation of people, especially the consolation of the fear before death, and function of science is knowledge, Church does not pretend to search for truth today even. Science has become an important factor of life, it is impossible to construct industrial society without science, in particular, without the Newtonian mechanics.
Science is activity of man to receiving, systematization and verification of the knowledges.
Thomas Kuhn about scientific revolutions
The paradigm (from Greek – "sample", "template") is a scientific principle, model, a sample for carrying out a research or a scientific formula. The Paradigm is the model of statement of a problem and its decision recognized by all scientific community for a long time. According to Thomas Kuhn, textbooks are sum of obsolete paradigms often. These textbooks don’t reflect the process of development of knowledge, there are silent about the disputes and conflicts between scientists in this textbooks often, this scientists are supporters of new and old paradigms.
There are two, replacing each other, stage of development of science:
• normal science,
• revolutionary science.
Most scientists believe in truth of the old paradigms in period of normal sciences, most scientists try to classify, to pack the facts on theoretical boxes of cupboard for old paradigm in period of normal sciences. Most scientists try to solve the small task in period of normal sciences, but most scientists try do not put under doubt the truth of old paradigm lying in base of their studies during period of normal science. Representatives of normal science fight against supporters of new paradigms often, because new paradigms destroy the old paradigms and theoretical basis of normal science. Nicolaus Copernicus, Isaac Newton, and Albert Einstein are examples of scientists who could invent a new paradigm and realize the scientific revolution.
Paradigm (from the Greek “sample”, “template”) is the scientific principle, model ,scientific formula or sample for conducting of research.
“Stubborn” facts or “anomalies” appear in the beginning of period of revolutionary science, these “stubborn” facts aren't located in “boxes” of cupboard of old theory, this “stubborn” facts cannot be explained with help of the old paradigm. Therefore scientific reformer must break of old cupboard and this reformer must create a new paradigm, which can explain these “stubborn” facts. Success in dispute between representatives of old and new paradigms depends not only from the degree of genius of this reformer, but from presence of friends of this reformer in sphere for business, politics and science, this friends can provide opportunities for public recognition. Supporters of the old paradigm don’t want to recognize new paradigm and this supporters of the old paradigm persist in heresy often, therefore supporters of the old paradigm have to leave naturally – to die or go to pension.
Development of science doesn't represent the gradual and consecutive accumulation of knowledges (history of science is described such in textbooks), and development of science represents a sequence of scientific revolutions, accompanied by a conflict between scientists and scientific schools. Such conflicts are examples of ideological conflicts. Early stages of development of majority sciences are characterized by constant rivalry between different views on nature. This is happening today in the sphere of macrosociology, where there are many competing schools and directions. Observation and experience can and must limit sharply the number of these competing schools and directions. History of science is a “cemetery” of obsolete paradigms. Supporters of obsolete paradigms in science try to resist to the new paradigms until the end. Supporters of obsolete paradigms remain convinced sincerely that, eventually, they can solve all problems with help of old paradigm that the nature can be squeezed in a framework of boxes of a cupboard of an old paradigm, they believe that those failures of supporters of old paradigm is a temporary difficulties. But change of scientific paradigms is an inevitable process within the development of science.
How this resistance of supporters of an old paradigm in natural sciences is overcome? This resistance is overcome with help of promises of supporters for a new paradigm to solve all problems that led the old paradigm to crisis. For example, Nicolaus Copernicus claimed that he solved the long irritated problem of duration for the calendar year, Isaac Newton claimed that he has reconciled the celestial and terrestrial mechanics. Besides, it is considered that the new theory has to be "clearer", "more convenient" or "simpler", than old.
Example of the scientific revolution in biology
Supporters of the old paradigm in biology were guided by the Bible. According to Bible, all species were created by God, therefore all species exist in invariable look from the moment of creation of Universe by God for seven days, species were not changed, species did not arise and did not disappear. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck has composed the classification of species. The doubts has appeared after opening the of huge number for species that Bible’s Noah could put in its Ark by representatives of each species and to save them from the World flood. God has created Adam and Eve as primogenitors of the human race. grandparents of the human genus.
Charles Darwin has gone to circumnavigation and Charles Darwin has discovered “stubborn” fact on the Galápagos Islands. Charles Darwin has discovered that populations of birds of finches on different islands have beak different of shape and size. Question has arisen before Charles Darwin: Do these populations belong to one species or to different species? it is impossible to explain this "stubborn” fact with help of the old paradigm about creation for species by God therefore Charles Darwin has created a new paradigm (the theory of biological evolution) and Charles Darwin explained this fact that specie of birds of finches exists in process of splittig and the formation of new species. The criterion of belonging to one specie is an ability to have healthy posterity under reproduction with each other. The theory of biological evolution explained this “stubborn” fact perfectly. Populations of birds of finches from different islands belong to the one specie, as representatives of these populations can reproduce with each other perfectly and to have the healthy posterity still, but perhaps that the further evolution can lead to emergence of new species which can not have the healthy posterity. Species arise and disappear according to the theory of Charles Darwin. And man and apes have general ancestor according to the theory of Charles Darwin, but this ancestor is not Adam and Eve. New facts appear with development of biology, this facts has confirmed the theory of Charles Darwin. Paleontologists discovered the skeletons from already died out species, for example, skeletons of dinosaurs. Genetics confirmed the origin man from general ancestor with apes with help such fact that genes of chimpanzee and man coincide on 99%.
The historical science
The modern overturn in Russian historical science and social sciences in General as an example of the scientific revolution
The last years were period of genuine scientific revolution in the Russian historical science and other social sciences. The secrets have disappeared in the history of Soviet Russia thanks to information obtained from confidential archives. In addition, crisis has reappeared in philosophical and sociological foundations of historical science. These foundations are necessary in historical science with purpose to explain and to connect the historical facts. The historical science will turns into a simple enumerating of facts without these foundations inevitably, the historical science will turns into set of stories and myths which aren't connected among themselves.
Sociological foundations of historic science
The historic science stays the descriptive science in general since the time of Herodotus and till today, the historic science stays as a set of facts and descriptions of life of heroes of history, although some scientists undertook the attempts to find laws of history with the purpose to explain, to connect in a whole and to foresee the course of events sometimes. Karl Marx had undertook to similar attempt in 19 century, and then communists had undertook the experiment to building of communism in Russia, this experiment was based on forecasts of Karl Marx, and this experiment has ended in failure. Therefore, the theory of Karl Marx and his historic laws turned out false in general, only Marxist theory of socio‐economic formation has for me certain value. it is necessary to pay special attention to studying of the theory of Asiatic mode of production, since the destiny has doomed by Russia to all difficulties of building for Asian mode of production. it is necessary to enumerate in this paragraph those sociological and philosophical theories which allow to formulate the laws history, which allow to connect and to explain the historical facts, which allow, perhaps even to foresee, the course of history.
In my opinion, following theories can be included in the list of important for historical science:
• the theory of social formations (Karl Marx is author of this theory),
• the theory of Asiatic mode of production (Karl August Wittfogel is author of this theory),
• the sociology of revolution (Pitirim Sorokin is author of this theory),
• the theory of challenge and response (Arnold J. Toynbee is author of this theory},
• the theory of forms for Government (Aristotle and Montesquieu are authors of this theory),
• the theory of political regimes, especially, the theory of totalitarianism (Raymond Aron is author of this theory),
• the theory of political elites (Vilfredo Pareto is author of this theory).
This theories are the basis of historic science and it is necessary to begin the explanation of bases of historical science with explanation of essence for this theories.
Scientific revolution in philosophy
The essence of old Marxist paradigm is as follows:
- The history of mankind is a history of fight between the exploiter classes. and exploited classes between oppressor and oppressed man.
- The history of society develops through steps (Socioeconomic formations).
- The Marxist prognosis consists that tools of oppression (the state, religions, family, army, law enforcement agencies, bureaucracy, the market) have to die off under communism, that social conflict and social control have to die off under communism. General freedom, equality and a brotherhood have to come between people under communism.
Bolsheviks have made an experiment in Russia on the basis of these prognosis with the purpose to construct communism.
As a result the following "stubborn" facts have been found:
- Workers have received salary increase, the right to vote, the right for a strike, unemployment benefits and so on in the 20th century in the West. Workers didn't want to participate in socialist revolution in the West and workers didn't want to vote on elections for local communists whom Russian communistic leaders supplied with money vainly. As a result capitalism wasn't going to "rot", as Vladimir Lenin predicted, and capitalism "has blossomed".
- It has turned out that Bolsheviks couldn't construct communism, despite the enormous number of the victims of civil war and state terror. Backward Asian mode of production and the primitive forms of government were constructed in the USSR instead of communism. Such form of government as tyranny has been constructed under Joseph Stalin, oligarchy has been constructed under Vladimir Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, Konstantin Chernenko and Mikhail Gorbachev, whereas all problems (crises of overproduction, threat from fascism and communism) have been solved in the West successfully.
- The attempt to achieve equality in the income has resulted to ruin in economy and balancing on the verge of hunger under socialism. Workers worked badly under socialism, despite application to them the most severe administrative stimuluses in the sphere of free labour and corporal punishments in system of Gulag. Unsuccessful attempts were made even that is ideological stimuluses have been applied in the sphere of free labour in the form of a socialist competition, but it has turned out that people don't want to work for tags and certificates of honor, and people want to work for big money only. There was a chronic deficiency of goods and their poor quality because of lack of the market competition under socialism.
- The attempt to cancel some social institutes and the organizations has resulted in deplorable results. The attempt to cancel the religious organizations has ended with a failure under socialism. Cancellation of freedom of speech and freedom of the press has led to creation of the ideological machine to deception of own citizens and defeat in an ideological competition to foreign West "radio voices". The attempt to invent the "Soviet" science has led to isolation from world science, to backwardness and to emergence of various pseudosciences, like the biological theory of Trofim Lysenko, materialistic dialectics, the Lenin's theory of reflection and so on.
Conclusion: Experiments on cancellation of separate kinds of the social conflict and the social control which have appeared during natural development of society have ended with a total failure.
The essence of my new paradigm is as follows:
- Society is constructed on the relations of social conflict and social control between people. Progress of society consists in improvement of this system, in invention all of new and new kinds of social conflict and social control. The logical interrelation between the principles of social conflict and social control is as follows. On the one hand, the winner in the conflict becomes a controller or takes away a sphere of influence from the loser, and the loser becomes object of control. On the other hand, too severe or too soft control leads to the destructive conflicts. Therefore it is necessary to support optimum degree of severity of social control.
- Society consists of groups and the organizations – family, the production organization, the government, army, branches of criminal justice system (that is police, court, prison), bureaucracy, church, school, the scientific organizations, mass media and culture, the organizations of health care. This groups and organizations have arisen in turn in the course of history. Each of this groups and organizations has specific function in society and this groups and organizations can't be cancelled in principle, contrary to Karl Marx's forecast. Formations are steps of development of society. The criterion which distinguishes one formation from another is a kind of social control in the sphere of economy. The primitive formation (primitive communism) has been constructed on moral control. Slaveholding formation (Antique mode of production or asiatic mode of production) has been constructed on armed control. Feudal formation has been constructed on administrative control. Capitalist formation has been constructed on economic control. The communistic formation can't be constructed in principle as Marx hasn't invented new more effective kind of social control in sphere of economy for communism.
- Examples of unsuccessful attempts to cancel some kinds of social conflict or social control are known in the history. Communists, anarchists, fascists and islamic fundamentalists tried to cancel such social inventions as representative democracy, economic control, the market competition, an ideological dispute, multi-party elections and so on. There are three political regimes: totalitarianism, authoritarianism and democracy. Tyrant tried to control all spheres of life of society (political, economic, family and cultural spheres) under totalitarianism, that is, tyrant tried to cancel almost all kinds of the social conflict in all these spheres. Such regress in the organization of social structure has led to the general decrease in competitiveness of citizens, such regress has led to general backwardness of totalitarian society and resistance of citizens, who had no opportunity to realize own abilities in the conflicts, to receive the wealth, prestige and power, therefore this citizens tried to organize illegal forms of the conflict – the "black" market, "samizdat" and so on. The authoritarian leader tried to control political sphere under authoritarianism only and to control the ideological sphere sometimes, therefore authoritarianism is lesser of two evils in comparison with totalitarianism. There is a blossoming of all forms of the social conflict and control, rapid progress of society under representative democracy.
- According to Pitirim Sorokin, peaceful reform is better than revolution. Weakening of social control leads to chaos in the organization or in society, weakening of social control leads to civil war or death of this organization or society, weakening of social control leads to the fact that the real power passes to usurpers or criminals, which are the spare or underground center of the power in society.
- The source of formational development is the conflict between civilizations. According to law of challenge and response of Arnold Toynbee, the environment offers the challenge to civilization, the elite has to find the response, otherwise the civilization risks to die. Thus, progressive development of society has no ultimate goal, progressive development is result of blind search in the principle of trial and error. Civilizations made this trial and error. Civilizations are a unit for selection in the history of society like species in the history of the biosphere. Thus, there is one highway of progressive development of human society only.
- There are five forms of government which are constructed on different kinds of a political conflict:
- Monarchy and tyranny are constructed on the armed seizure of power and civil war.
- Aristocracy and oligarchy are constructed on elections in privileged assembly (in senate, Boyar duma, the Central Committee or the Politburo of Communist Party).
- Direct democracy are constructed on elections in popular assembly in Athens or in Veche in Novgorod, on the Cossack Rada, on peasant assembly of the community (Obshchina) in Russia, on a meeting of criminals or pirates.
- Hereditary monarchy are constructed on transfer of a throne by inheritance, on palace coups (Coup d'état) by means of guard, on campaigns of impostors.
- Representative democracy are constructed on on multi-party elections.
Different forms of government has different vices or shortcomings. Different forms of government has different organizations of the Supreme power. Different forms of government has different kinds of the groups and the organizations competing for the power for these reasons. The best form of government is representative democracy.
My paradigm explains the "stubborn" facts perfectly:
- According to my paradigm, opposite social ("exploiter" and "exploited") classes can not only conflict with each other, but opposite classes can cooperate perfectly within preservation of the relations of social control also. The social peace is profitable to both opposite classes though the social peace is profitable for the controlling ("exploiter") class slightly more, than for a ("exploited") class which is object of control. Businessmen have been forced to make big concessions to hired workers in the conditions of communistic threat. It is so possible to explain the first the "stubborn" fact".
- Communism couldn't be constructed in principle, as it is impossible to cancel all forms of social control and social conflict in principle. Communism was a harmful social utopia from the very beginning. Communism is the fairy tale for adults. All victims suffered by Russia in process of construction of communism were vain and all victims lie on conscience of fanatic communists and communistic tyrants though fanatic communists aren't going to repent of own sins today.
- Workers worked under socialism badly because there were no economic stimuluses to work perfectly. Only business owners can apply these economic stimuluses but this business owners were robbed and destroyed under socialism. Economic control is more effective in comparison with all other kinds of control – ideological, moral, armed or administrative control. Deficit and poor quality of goods are inevitable in the conditions of cancellation of market competition.
- Social institutes are great social inventions. Social institutes is very difficult or it is even impossible to cancel in principle as social institutes perform certain functions in society and social institutes have big benefit. For example, the religion consoles the fear before death and the religion brings up people. Tales about communism can't console fear before death. Mass media begin to lie in favor of ruling regime and bureaucracy in the conditions of the prohibition of ideological discussions and in the conditions of censorship inevitably. Isolation from world science and the prohibition of scientific discussions result to backwardness of national science and the invention of pseudosciences inevitably. Successful development of science is impossible in principle without discussions and exchange of information with foreign scientists.
If Russian society has endured the period of reforms and change of ruling elite for the last years in general successfully, then old communistic teachers have kept the leading posts in social sciences. These old liars criticized and held up to shame the western sociology. old communistic teachers were a component of machine on deception of citizens. The Soviet regime has been constructed on big terror and a big lie. Old communistic teachers repeat as a spell today: "Karl Marx is a genius of all times and the people!". Though all their forecasts about communism have failed, old communistic teachers continue to lie and to dodge today. Old communistic teachers aren't going to leave on old-age pension or die today as old communistic teachers turn out long-livers.
Conclusion: the Marxist paradigm hasn't passed test life and Marxist paradigm has to be sent to archive of scientific delusions.
Sociology of the ingenious personality
My purpose is to estimate degree of professional suitability of various the personality types for achievement of good results in the field of social sciences. At first it is necessary to estimate this degree of suitability on the example of great philosophers of the past who have made the significant contribution to science and by that have proved own professional suitability, then it is possible to suggest to consider results of these researches under assessment of potential abilities of modern applicants on scientific degree.
Establishment of personality types of these philosophers has been made by means of studying of their biographies and styles of compositions (a biographic method and the stylistic analysis). The difficulty in carrying out this research consisted that it was impossible to apply more reliable written test or visual test for the personality type as these philosophers have died long ago.Biographies of some mathematicians, physicists, biologists, psychologists, economists and historians have been considered except philosophers in this work, scientific creativity of this scientists is great importance for development of a philosophical picture of the world . Selection has been made on the basis of textbooks on histiry of philosophy. Actually, there were almost all philosophers in the list of respondents, who have though some value in the history of philosophy.
As the only obstacle for entering into this list has served the absence in scientific literature of the description of the detailed biography of many philosophers of Ancient Greece. There were 81 philosophers in this list. There were on national identity 9 Jews, 10 ancient Greeks, 3 ancient Romans, 7 Russians, 13 British, 3 Americans, 12 French, 5 Italians, 10 Germans, 2 Austrians, 1 Swiss, 1 Dutch, 1 Dane, 1 Pole, 1 Czech, 1 Chinese and 1 Hindu. Thus, the list of respondents covers geniuses of all times and all peoples.
Bertrand Russell has divided by philosophers and their theories on the dominating passion which has induced this philosopher to be engaged in philosophy.
According to this classification there are following types of philosophies and group of philosophers:
- The feeling philosophies inspired by love to happiness, they, first of all, are optimistical or pessimistic, they offer schemes of rescue or try to prove that rescue is impossible. Almost all representatives of religious philosophy belong to this direction.
- The theoretical philosophies inspired by love to knowledge. Creators of great philosophical systems belong to this direction as though the passion to knowledge is a source of all of the best in philosophy, .though the passion to knowledge exists at people seldom
- The practical philosophies inspired by love to action. This philosophers considered action as the highest blessing belonged to this direction. This philosophers considered happiness as practical result, and knowledge – simply the instrument of successful activity.
In my opinion, the philosophy of feeling is characteristic of psychologists as the personality type, theoretical philosophy is characteristic of theorists, practical philosophy is characteristic of technicians. Bertrand Russell hasn't considered at all necessary to consider scientific works of speakers in own textbook "A History of Western Philosophy" , except for Erasmus of Rotterdam and Francis Bacon as the contribution of speakers to development of philosophy is insignificant. Bertrand Russell has given a negative assessment of scientific works of such philosophers- psychologists and philosophers-technicians as Socrates, Plato, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson with whom I agrees completely.
The theorist has the following inclinations:
- To carrying out researches in the field of mathematics and logic.
- To loneliness and unsociability, to use of paradoxical "English" humour.
- Absent-mindedness and fanatical thirst of knowledge.
- Scientific, laconic, categorical and clear style of compositions, ability to draw a paradoxical conclusion, to make classification, to remove by scientific formula or the law. The originality and objectivity of his theoretical conclusions so strikes by his contemporaries that at first even causes charges of the theorist of madness, but then descendants are forced to recognize his correctness under pressure of indisputable proofs. The speech of the theorist against religion for the sake of the scientific truth often led to prosecutions him in side of church.
- The profound knowledge allowing to create by excellent textbooks and to make the significant contribution to development at once of several sciences.
- Rationalism. Use of a deductive method.
Inclinations of the speaker:
- Active and unruly character, take-off and falling during life, high success at women, high leader and oratorical abilities. Ability to find by money, to use acquaintances and to organize of other philosophers for the edition of the scientific collection or the encyclopedia.
- Thirst of the political power, participation in revolts and wars, occupation of high positions in the government.
- Enterprise qualities, ability to go even for financial frauds.
- Popular style of compositions, use of satire instead of strict scientific proofs. Banality of theoretical conclusions. Low theoretical level.
- Speaker doesn't like to study and speaker has no of university philosophical education often. Speaker is capable to make an excellent translation of scientific works from a foreign language.
Inclinations of the psychologist:
- To unreasonable imagination, to social utopias. The originality of his conclusions reaches to the point of absurdity and leads to serious mistakes.
- To religious philosophy, mysticism, to carrying out researches in the field of ethics, cultural science, psychology and linguistics.
- Literary, graceful style of compositions, composition of verses, love to art.
- Too large volume of compositions which remind a chaotic stream of consciousness.
- To poverty and to search of patrons.
Inclinations of the technician:
- State, boring style of compositions by means of which technician tried to disguise of lack of the original ideas. The technician is a reactionary in social sciences and technician has conservative political views.
- Pedantry, lack of sense of humour and arrogance. Quiet monotonous life. Low degree of interest to an opposite sex which leads to late marriage or a barchelor way of life.
- Carrying out of valuable empirical researches. Use of an inductive method.
The following indicators are used: for assessment of value of scientific contribution:
- Creation of the new theory within the existing science (assessment is "satisfactory").
- Creation of a new paradigm which has led to a revolution in science (assessment – "good!").
- Creation of new science in the field of philosophy (assessment – is "excellent").
- The lack of these scientific achievements means assessment "unsatisfactorily".
| № | Name on thinker | Personality type of thinker | Assessment of a scientific contribution: unsatisfactorily | Assessment of a scientific contribution: satisfactorily | Assessment of a scientific contribution: good | Assessment of a scientific contribution: excellent | What theory or science was based by this thinker? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Zeno of Elea | theorist | + | Dialectics as science about art of a dispute, aporias. | |||
| 2 | Aristotle | theorist | + + | Formal logic and political science. | |||
| 3 | Euclid | theorist | + | Geometry. | |||
| 4 | Nicolaus Copernicus | theorist | + | Heliocentrism instead of geocentrism. | |||
| 5 | Isaac Newton | theorist | + | + | Law of universal gravitation, integral calculus. | ||
| 6 | Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz | theorist | + | + | Integral calculus. Mathematical logic. | ||
| 7 | René Descartes | theorist | + | Analytical geometry | |||
| 8 | Baruch Spinoza | theorist | + | Atheism and rational criticism of the Bible | |||
| 9 | Niccolò Machiavelli | theorist | + | Description of essence of tyranny | |||
| 10 | Thomas Hobbes | theorist | + | Similarity of the state and human body | |||
| 11 | Montesquieu | theorist | + | Description of the principle of division of the authorities | |||
| 12 | Adam Smith | theorist | + | Economics | |||
| 13 | Auguste Comte | theorist | + | Sociology | |||
| 14 | Thomas Robert Malthus | theorist | + | Demography. | |||
| 15 | Alexis de Tocqueville | theorist | + | The description of essence of democracy in America. | |||
| 16 | Charles Darwin | theorist | + + | The theory of biological evolution, theory of origin of man and monkey from the general ancestor | |||
| 17 | Gregor Mendel | theorist | + | Genetics | |||
| 18 | Sigmund Freud | theorist | + | Psychoanalysis. | |||
| 19 | Bertrand Russell | theorist | + + | Logical fundamentals of mathematics, history of the western philosophy | |||
| 20 | Vilfredo Pareto | theorist | + | Theory of political elite | |||
| 21 | Ivan Pavlov | theorist | + + | Justification of four temperaments and conditioned reflex. | |||
| 22 | Émile Durkheim | theorist | + | Sociological reasons of suicides | |||
| 23 | Pitirim Sorokin | theorist | + + | Sociology of revolution, theory of social mobility. | |||
| 24 | George Gamow | theorist | + + | + | Big Bang Theory, hydrogen bomb in the USA, a source of burning of stars, deciphering of a genetic code | ||
| 25 | John Maynard Keynes | theorist | + | State regulation of economy. | |||
| 26 | Thomas Kuhn | theorist | + | Theory of scientific revolutions | |||
| 27 | Norbert Wiener | theorist | + | Cybernetics. | |||
| 28 | Albert Einstein | theorist | + | Theory of relativity | |||
| 29 | Max Weber | theorist | + + | Theory of Protestant ethics, theory of bureaucracy. | |||
| 30 | Ludwig von Bertalanffy | theorist | + | General theory of systems, theory of open systems. | |||
| 31 | Raymond Aron | theorist | + + | Criticism of totalitarianism, history of sociology | |||
| 32 | Erasmus of Rotterdam | speaker | + | ||||
| 33 | Francis Bacon | speaker | + | Inductive scientific method, criticism of deduction | |||
| 34 | Denis Diderot | speaker | + | ||||
| 35 | Baron d'Holbach | speaker | + | ||||
| 36 | Voltaire | speaker | + | ||||
| 37 | Friedrich Engels | speaker | + | ||||
| 38 | Vladimir Lenin | speaker | + | ||||
| 39 | Confucius | psychologist | + | ||||
| 40 | Socrates | psychologist | + | Ethics | |||
| 41 | Plato | psychologist | + | ||||
| 42 | Diogenes the Cynic | psychologist | + | ||||
| 43 | Aristippus | psychologist | + | ||||
| 44 | Epicurus | psychologist | + | ||||
| 45 | Titus Lucretius Carus | psychologist | + | ||||
| 46 | Plutarch | psychologist | + | Biographies of heroes of Greece and Rome | |||
| 47 | Marcus Aurelius | psychologist | + | ||||
| 48 | Plotinus | psychologist | + | ||||
| 49 | Gautama Buddha | psychologist | + | ||||
| 50 | Augustine of Hippo | psychologist | + | ||||
| 51 | Thomas Aquinas | psychologist | + | ||||
| 52 | Thomas More | psychologist | + | ||||
| 53 | Giambattista Vico | psychologist | + | Civilization approach | |||
| 54 | Jean-Jacques Rousseau | psychologist | + | ||||
| 55 | Charles Fourier | psychologist | + | ||||
| 56 | Henri de Saint-Simon | psychologist | + | ||||
| 57 | Søren Kierkegaard | psychologist | + | ||||
| 58 | Nikolay Karamzin | psychologist | + | History of Russia | |||
| 59 | Karl Marx | psychologist | + | Formation approach | |||
| 60 | Arthur Schopenhauer | psychologist | + | ||||
| 61 | Friedrich Nietzsche | psychologist | + | ||||
| 62 | Gustave Le Bon | psychologist | + | Psychology of crowd | |||
| 63 | Carl Jung | psychologist | + | The theory about the personality types | |||
| 64 | Nikolai Berdyaev | psychologist | + | ||||
| 65 | Jean-Paul Sartre | psychologist | + | ||||
| 66 | Jacob L. Moreno | psychologist | + | Sociometry | |||
| 67 | Ludwig Wittgenstein | psychologist | + | ||||
| 68 | Cesare Lombroso | psychologist | + + | The theory of female crime, the theory of interrelation between genius and insanity | |||
| 69 | Oswald Spengler | psychologist | + | ||||
| 70 | Alfred Adler | psychologist | + | The theory about an inferiority complex | |||
| 71 | Karl Jaspers | psychologist | + | ||||
| 72 | Albert Camus | psychologist | + | ||||
| 73 | Lev Gumilyov | psychologist | + | Ethnogenesis | |||
| 74 | Karl Popper | psychologist | + + | Open society, principle of falsification | |||
| 75 | Edmund Burke | technician | + | The conservative direction in policy | |||
| 76 | John Locke | technician | + | + | Liberalism, empiricism | ||
| 77 | Immanuel Kant | technician | + | Origin of Solar system from a large cloud of gas | |||
| 78 | Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel | technician | + | ||||
| 79 | Carl von Clausewitz | technician | + | Strategy of war. | |||
| 80 | Herbert Spencer | technician | + | Social Darwinism. | |||
| 81 | B. F. Skinner | technician | + | Behaviorism as theory of social control |
Thus, among philosophers theorists make 38%, speakers make 9%,, psychologists make 44%, technicians make 9%. Average degree of success (S) of the personality types in philosophy can be counted by means of the following formula
S = (1×Q¹+2×Q²+3×Q³) : Z
Where Q ¹ means total quantity of pluses in a column for satisfactory assessments for this personality, type Q ² - quantity of pluses in a column of good assessments for this personality type, Q ³ - quantity of pluses in a column of excellent assessmentss for this personality type. Z - the number of the philosophers belonging to this personality type.
- For theorists S=(1×18+2×14+3×10):31=2,45,
- for speakers S=(2×1):7=0,29,
- for psychologists S=(1×11+2×2+3×1):36=0,5,
- for technicians S=(1×6+2×1):7=1,14
It is possible to draw the following conclusions. Theorists are capable to create great philosophical theories. The philosophy and science are the only social lift where theorists are capable to make great success, and speakers show full professional unfitness and inclination to plagiarism. Technicians are the most suitable for a role of the experimenter in science, but the attempt of the technician to create philosophical theories results in mediocre results. Therefore I can advise to technicians to be engaged in empirical sociology, natural or technical science instead of philosophy. Psychologists have low degree of success in philosophy, though psychologists make the greatest share among philosophers. Psychologists specialize in a research of such "not positive" sciences as ethics, theology, pedagogics and an esthetics. It is possible to advise to psychologists to be engaged in psychology instead of philosophy, to be engaged in the composition of children's fairy tales instead of the composition of social utopias.